CONTENTS

Abstract 1
Dedication 2
Acknowledgements 3
List of Figures 8

Chapter One
Introduction 10
1:1 Background to Study 12
1:2 The Beginning 14
1:3 Aim and Purpose of Research 17
1:4 Scope of Study 18
1:5 Research Questions 19
1:6 Research Methodology 20
1:7 Fieldwork Experience 21
1:8 Preview of Chapters 24

Chapter Two
Definition of Concepts and Theoretical Framework 27
2:1 Introduction 27
2:2 Popular Music, Language, Culture and The Issue of Identity 27
2:3 Nigerian Music: Between ‘Popular’/ ‘Contemporary‘ and 
      ‘Traditional‘ / ‘Folk’ 38

Chapter Three
An Introduction to Nigeria and the Yorùbá People 44
3:1 Introduction 44
3:2 Nigeria: A Short Profile 44
3:3 The Yorùbá people: Historical Background 55
3:4 The Yorùbá Arts and Cultural Worldview 59
3:5 Lagos City and The Evolution of Nigeria‘s Urban 
      Popular Culture 60
3:6 Conclusions: Nigeria‘s Urban Popular Culture and
       The Yoruba influence 74

Chapter Four
Nigeria: What Manner of Music? 75
4:1 Introduction 75
4:2 Nigerian Popular Music: An Overview 75
4:3 Nigerian Popular Music: 
      The Nation and Process of Emergence 79
4:4 Styles of Popular Music in Nigeria 82
4:5 The Nigerian Popular Music and the Underlying 
       Yorùbá Influence 102
4:6 Conclusion 111

Chapter Five
The Nigerian Hip Hop Scene and the ‘Afro Hip Hop’ Identity 112
5:1 Introduction 112
5:2 Origin of Hip Hop 112
5:3 Background to Nigeria‘s Hip Hop 116
5:4 Hip Hop, ‘The Street‘ and The Nigerian Experience 122
5:5 Nigeria‘s Afro Hip Hop: Style and Peculiarities 130
5:6 Major Themes in Nigeria‘s Afro Hip Hop 139
5:7 Afro Hip Hop: Why Yorùbá is the Preferred Medium
       of Communication 153
5:8 Conclusion 167

Chapter Six
‘Ruggedy Baba’: An Afro Hip Hop Case Study 169
6:1 Introduction 169
6:2 Ruggedman: Artist Profile 170
6:3 ‘Ruggedy Baba‘ – Lyrics and Translation 172
6:4 The Yorùbá Influence n ‘Ruggedy Baba‘ 176
6:5 ‘Ruggedy Baba‘ and The Negotiation of Nigerian Identity 180
6:6 Backgrounds to Popular Music Video and The Nigerian 
      Experience 185
6:7 ‘Ruggedy Baba‘: Video Analysis 192
6:8 Conclusion and Chapter Summary 207

Chapter Seven
Hip Hop, Fújì and the Use of Yorùbá Culture in Preventing Popular Music Homogenization 210
7:1 Introduction: Hip Hop and Fújì; The Synergy 210
7:2 Hip Hop and Fújì: Yorùbá Connection, Influences 
      and Similarities 211
7:3 Hip Hop, Fújì and the Idea of Fusion‘ and ‘Crossover‘ 220
7:4 Hip Hop and Fújì in Relation to Globalization and 
      Hybridization 238
7:5 Conclusion 243

Chapter Eight
The Nigerian Music Industry: Challenges and Possibilities 244
8:1 Introduction 244
8:2 The Nigerian Music industry: An Overview 245
8:3 Exit of Major Recording Labels 251
8:4 The Challenges 254
8:5 Possibilities and Recommendations 262
8:6 Conclusion 263

Summary and Conclusions 265

References 268

Appendix: Accompanying CDs 288

CONTENTS

Acknowledgement
Foreword
Dedication
Introduction

 1 Traditional Music in Nigeria 1
 2 Advent of Apala, Sakara, Dundun and Sekere 8
 3 Were Music, and the Pioneers 28
 4 The Change 36
 5 Alhaji Sikiru Balogun (Barrister) 40
 6 Alhaji Ayinla Kolawole Ilori (Kollington) 53
 7 Alhaji Wasiu Anifowoshe (Marshal) 64
 8 Alhaji Dauda Akanmu (Epo Akara) 73
 9 The Propagators of fuji music 83
10 The Merchants 100
11 Influence on the Society 117
12 The New Trend, Any Hope? 120
13 Room for improvement 122
14 Artistes & Base 125
15 Some records released 126
16 References 132

CONTENTS

Acknowledgement i
Dedication iii
Preface iv

 1 Traditional music in Nigeria 1
 2 The roots of juju music 5
 3 Juju music pioneers 10
 4 The influence of highlife, kokoma & mambo 18
 5 The revolutionary days 25
 6 Pa I. K. Dairo 32
 7 Chief Ebenezer Obey 38
 8 King Sunny Ade 49
 9 Admiral Dele Abiodun 63
10 Juju music propagators 69
11 The new trends 88
12 Shina Peters 96
13 The trend setters 103
14 The merchants 121
15 Some record releases 145
16 Juju musicians and base 150

Index 151
Reference 155

CONTENTS

Acknowledgements i
Dedication iii
Preface iv
Introduction ix

 1 Before Highlife 1
 2 Throughout The West Coast 6
 3 The Protagonists 18
 4 In Nigeria 23
 5 The Players within 36
 6 Dr. Victor Abimbola Olaiya 73
 7 Bala Miller 84
 8 Osadebe 87
 9 Oliver De Coque 91
10 The Trios 98
11 E. T. Mensah 111
12 Highlife Players in Ghana 116
13 Down The Drain? Possible Revival 120

Index 123
Reference 135

CONTENTS

Acknowledgements i
Dedication ii
Introduction 1

 1 What fuji is all about 6
 2 The early players and influences 13
 3 Revolutionary days 18
 4 The emergence of Waisu Ayinde 24
 5 The road to stardom 30
 
 A picture is worth a 1,000 words 36-76

 6 Crowning of the fuji king 77
 7 The Marshal organisation 85
 8 Dynamism of fuji music 88
 9 The king as a family man 94

10 What people say 99
11 Appendix 109
12 Index 114
13 Reference 120

CONTENTS

Dedication ix
Introduction: The Hypnosis xi
Appreciation xxi

 1. The Gestation and Formative Years 1
 2. The Metamorphosis 19
 3. The Enigmatic Man and Creativity 33
 4. Portrait of the Astute Manager 51
 5. The Polemics in Vibes 63
 6. The Interregnum in Music Empire 83
 7. The Octave in Tidal Waves 97
 8. On the Threshold to Eternal Honour 115
 9. The Crown 129
10. The Post-Kingship Era I 137
11. The Post- Kingship Era II 171
12. The Post-Kingship Era III 211
13. One Sickness Too Many 229
14. The Afrikaness in His Vibrataions 249
15. The Monograph: An Ode to a Sage 279
16. The Vivacious African Beats Ensemble 295
17. Making Waves Around the World 305
18. The Great Man’s Mystiques at the Diamond Age 325
19. The Exquisite (Get Up) U.S.A. Tour 337
20. Brandishing Honours into the New Millennium 355
21. The Master Guitarist: A Songster from another World! 375
22. King Sunny Ade’s Millennial Glory 391

Appendices
KSA’s Table of Awards/Plaques 411
Bibliography 421
Author Profile 425

CONTENTS

Introduction xi
What is Peculiar to Obey and his Music xii
Mode of Arrangement xvii
Problems and Limitations xviii
Sources of Information xx
Biography and Musical Career of Chief Commander Ebenezer Obey xxi
Names of Inter-Reformers Band Members xxvi
Bibliography xxvii

Annotated Discography 1
Subject Index 55

CONTENTS

Preface 9
Appreciation 10
Prologue 13

1. In the Beginning 15
2. Learning the Ropes 21
3. Stepping out 32
4. Crisis and Conflicts 57
5. Peace and Truce 67
6. The King, The Myth 70
7. Glimpses of the Future 79

Epilogue 83
Discography 87
Appendix 89

CONTENTS

Foreword  [7]
Preface  [9]
Appreciation  [11]

 1.  Afrobeat  13
 2.  Juju  19
 3.  Pop  33
 4.  Apala  45
 5.  Reggae  53
 6.  Fuji  65
 7.  Gospel  73
 8.  Kalangu  79
 9.  Highlife  85
10. Folks  99
11. Sakara  107
12. Waka  113
13. The Record Industry  117
14. Promotions  121
15. Associations  125
16. Awards  127

Conclusion  131

CONTENTS

Acknowledgments vi
List of Table x
List of Figures xi

Introduction 1
Orientation of this Research 3
Context of the Study  7

Chapter 1
The Formative Stage 14
1.1 The Beginnings at Till Nelson Akamo Davies’s
       Motor Mechanic Workshop 14
1.2 The Origin of the Word Jùjú in Jùjú Music 25
1.3 Emergence, Acceptance and Early Growth 38

Chapter 2
The Developmental Stage 50
2.1 The Rise of Exponents from the School of
       Abdulrafiu Basatunde King 50
2.2 The Emergence and Contribution of Regional
       Exponents 66
2.3 The Rise of the Superstars 72

Chapter 3
The Era of the Superstars: The Nineteeen Seventies 89

Chapter 4
Style in Juju Music:
A Study of the Music of Abdulrafiu Babatunde King 108
4.1 The Social Context of Style in the Music of
       Tunde King 110
4.2 Stylistic Resources 112
4.3 Stylistic Analysis 127

Chapter 5
Summary and Conclusions 165

Appendix A
Discography of some Commercial Recordings Made by
Abdulrafiu Babatunde King in the Early 1950s.
Source: Nigerian Broadcasting Corporation 171

Appendix B
Additional Photographs of some Juju Bandleaders
in Nigeria. Source: Nigerian Newspapers and Magazines 172

Sources Consulted 177

CONTENTS

Acknowledgments ix

Introduction by Michael E. Veal 1
Chapter one Right in the Center of Lagos 21
Chapter two Highlife Time 36
Chapter three The Sky Was the Limit 47
Chapter four God’s Own Country 68
Chapter five Swinging like Hell! 85
Chapter six Everything Scatter 108
Chapter seven Progress 128
Chapter eight When One Road Close 146
Chapter nine Paris Blues 162
Chapter ten No End to Business 175

Selected references 187
Index 193

CONTENTS

Title i
Certification ii
Dedication iii
Acknowledgement iv
Purpose v
Scope vi
Arrangement vi
Source of Information vi
Table of Contents viii

Part One
Introduction/Life Story 1
Contributions to Music 5
Philosophy of Life 10

Part Two
Compilation of Oliver De Coque’s Recordings 13

INHALT

Zum Geleit xi
Danksagung xiii

1 Einleitung 1

2 Die sozialhistorische Ausgangslage im britisch-kolonialen Westafrika der Nachkriegsjahre 25
2.1 Die Kolonialgeschichte Britisch-Westafrikas bis zum
       Zweiten Weltkrieg 25
2.2 Die Auswirkung des Krieges auf die Kolonien 26
2.3 Die Folgen des Zweiten Weltkriegs für die britischen
       Territorien in Westafrika 33
2.4 Die soziokulturelle Situation in Nigeria nach dem
       Zweiten Weltkrieg 39
2.4.1 Religion und die Afrikanisierung des Christentums 39
2.4.2 Die Kunst-,,Workshops” 43
2.4.3 Literatur 46
2.4.4 Theater 46

3 Musik im kolonialen Britisch-Westafrika 53
3.1 Großbritannien hat sich als Kolonialmacht fest etabliert 53
3.2 Die überlieferte Musikpraxis 54
3.3 Kirchenmusik und klassische Musik Europas 56
3.4 Militärmusik 72
3.5 Die europäische Tanzmusik 78
3.5.1 Das Accra Orchestra 85
3.5.2 Tanzmusik im Radio 87
3.6 Frühe Plattenproduktion westafrikanischer Musik 87
3.7 Die Auswirkung der Tonsprachen auf das Verhältnis
       von Text und Musik 91
3.8 Musik und Tanz-Motionen 94

4 Highlife in Nigeria 99
4.1 Exkurs: Der Vater des nigerianischen Highlife: Bobby Benson 99
4.1.1 Zur Biographie 99
4.1.2 „Taxi Driver” 107
4.1.3 Kritik an Bobby Benson  110
4.1.4 Der Tod von Bobby Benson 114
4.1.5 Zur diskographischen Forschung 118
4.2 Ghanaischer versus nigerianischer Highlife 126
4.2.1 Was ist Highlife? 126
4.2.2 Woher kommt der Highlife? 130
4.2.3 Nigerianischer Rundfunk und Ghana-Highlife 144
4.3 Die Musik 146
4.3.1 Die Stile 146
4.3.2 Sprache der Lieder 147
4.3.3 Instrumental Ausstattung 149
4.3.4 Instrumentenbesitz 155
4.3.5 Die innermusikalische Struktur des Highlife 158
4.3.6 Plattenzeit und Spielzeit 163
4.3.7 Das Klangbild des Highlife – Probleme der
          Klangwunschvorstellungen in der Plattenproduktion 166
4.4 Die Musiker 168
4.4.1 Musiker sein. Die soziale Position der Musiker 168
4.4.2 Sex und Gender im Highlife 170
4.4.3 Bandleader und Besetzungen 172
4.4.4 Liste mit einer Auswahl der wichtigsten Musiker im 
           nigerianischen Highlife 175
4.4.5 Professionalismus 176
4.4.6 The Three Night Wizards 178
4.4.7 Der Status 183
4.4.8 Musiker-Namen 185
4.5 Der Tanz 193
4.5.1 Die Bewegungsabläufe 193
4.5.2 Twist-Highlife als Tanz 205
4.5.3 Tanzforschung 208
4.6 Das Publikum 209
4.6.1 Wer besuchte die Highlife-Lokale? 209
4.6.2 Jagua Nana – Highlife in Lagos und die ,,Good-Time-Girls” 213
4.6.3 Spraying 218
4.6.4 Diskurs der Gäste 219
4.7 Kleidung 220
4.7.1 „National Dress” 220
4.8 Die Orte 224
4.8.1 Open-Air-Lokale 224
4.8.2 West End Hotel und andere Lokale 228
4.8.3 Schließung eines Tanzlokals 231
4.8.4 Offizielle Anlässe und private Veranstaltungen 232
4.9 Die Tonträger – Ihre Produktion und Vermarktung 233
4.9.1 Grammophone 233
4.9.2 Schallplatten 236
4.9.3 Schallplattenpreise 236
4.9.4 Plattengeschäfte 237
4.9.5 Plattenfirmen 238
4.9.6 Decca 241
4.9.7 Badejo’s Sound Studios  243
4.9.8 Ogunde Records 245
4.9.9 Nigerphone und Werner Becker 247
4.9.10 Philips West African Records — die
            diskographischen Forschungsergebnisse 254
4.9.11 Die Highlife-Produktion der sechziger Jahre 258
4.9.12 EMI-Fabrik in Jos 265
4.9.13 Die neuen kleinen Labels nach der Unabhängigkeit 266
4.9.14 Verhältnis der Musiker und Plattenfirmen 266
4.9.15 Vermarktung 267
4.10 Presse 271

5 ,,Praise Culture” in Nigeria 273
5.1 Die historischen Wurzeln der ,,Praise Culture” in Nigeria 273
5.1.1 Die oriki der Yoruba 273
5.1.2 Die Igbo-Minstrels 275
5.1.3 Die Hausa-Maroka 276
5.2 Das Preislied 279
5.2.1 Preislieder und Politik 280
5.2.2 Der populäre Diskurs zu Wahlkampfzeiten 284
5.2.3 Sport und Titelkämpfe im Highlife 298
5.2.4 Diskurs der Melomanen 303
5.2.5 Preislieder als gesungener Nachruf 304
5.3 “A Literature of the People, by the People, and for 
        the People” — Preisliteratur — Politische Hagiographie 309
5.3.1 Populäre Literatur am Beispiel der ,,Onitsha-Heftchen” 309
5.4 ,,The Art of Highlife” – Preismalerei 315
5.4.1 Die Schildermaler 319
5.4.2 Zur Sammlungslage 325
5.4.3 Wer waren die Künstler? 326
5.4.4 Der Weg vom Land in die Stadt 328
5.4.5 Malerei als Bindeglied zwischen Musik, Mode und Frisuren 332
5.5 Preiskleidung 335
5.5.1 ,,Commemorative Cloth” (Erinnerungsstoff) 335
5.5.2 Preisstoffe 338
5.5.3 Frauen- und Männerkleidung 349
5.5.4 Yoruba-gele 350
5.5.5 Bedruckte Stoffe 351
5.5.6 Aso Ebi 352
5.6 Preisfrisuren 354
5.6.1 Frisuren im populären Kontext 354
5.6.2 Friseurschilder 354
5.6.3 Die Bedeutung der Frisuren 355
5.6.4 Namen der Frisuren 361

6 Highlife im Kontext der ,,Praise Culture” – Die Glorifizierung der Politiker 369
6.1 Thema I: LUMUMBA 371
6.1.1 Patrice Lumumba als historische Persönlichkeit 371
6.1.2 Der Lumumba-Mythos 373
6.1.3 ,,The Late Lion of the Congo” 376
6.1.4 Lumumba Songs 384
6.1.5 Malerei 398
6.1.6 Frisuren 400
6.1.7 Textilien 401
6.1.8 Die Lumumba-Verehrung 404
6.2 Thema II: AZIKIWE 407
6.2.1 Historische Persönlichkeit 407
6.2.2 Der ,,Zik”-Mythos 412
6.2.3 Azikiwe – Onitsha-Portraits 414
6.2.4 Azikiwe-Lied 420
6.2.5 Azikiwe-Kunst 431
6.2.6 Frisuren und nationalistische Gesinnung 435
6.2.7 Azikiwe-Stoffe  436
6.2.8 Photographic 437
6.3 Thema III: KENNEDY 438
6.3.1 President Kennedy – Die
          historische Persönlichkeit 438
6.3.2 Der Kennedy-Mythos 438
6.3.3 Die Kennedy-Heftchen 440
6.3.4 Die Kennedy-Liedtexte 444
6.3.5 Die Kennedy-Bilder 447
6.3.6 Die Kennedy-Frisuren 447
6.3.7 Kennedy-Stoffe 448

7 Resume 451

Bibliographie 457

Diskographie 475
7″-Singles, 45 r.p.m.  475
7″-Extended Play Singles (EPs), 45 r.p.m. 488
10″-LPs, 33 r.p.m. 493
12″-LPs, 33 r.p.m. 494

Abbildungsverzeichnis 499

Abbildungen 507

TABLE DES MATIÈRES

Préface 7
Introduction 11

   I – Une ascendance prestigieuse 17
  II – La croix et le fouet 29
 III – Koola Lobitos : l’impasse de highlife jazz 37
  IV – L’Afrobeat prend vie 49
   V – Conscience rebelle : l’arme de l’Afrobeat 61
  VI – Entre provocation et résistance : le courage de dire 79
 VII – Héro de l’international underground 105
VIII – Egypt 80 : le monde entend des voix 123
   IX – Afrobeat, l’arme du futur 141

Annexes 153
Glossaire 155
Discographie sélective 161
Bibliographie 175
Ressources et liens Internet (webographie) 177
Notes 179

CONTENTS

Foreword
Preface
Introduction

1. Fela Ransome-Kuti
2. Fela Anikulapo-Kuti and the Afrospot Years 1970-75
3. Kalakuta Republic
4. Movement of the People (M.O.P.)
5. Discography

References
Index

CONTENTS

Note about the Editor 1

1 Introduction 3
2 My Early Years 8
3 The Mature Musician 15
4 Joromi 23
5 Tours and Trips 28
    Tour to Northern Nigeria 28
    Grand Overseas Tour of 1973 33
6 Life in General 40

CONTENTS

Foreword 5
About the author 10
Introduction 11

Part 1 Early Days
1 The birth of Afrobeat 15
2 Joe Mensah remembers 23
3 Fela in Ghana 27
4 Stan Plange remembers 29

Part 2 Confrontation
5 Kalakuta is born 37
6 ‘JB’ talks about Fela 43
7 The Kalakuta Republic 49
8 The Black President 69
9 Amsterdam and after 75

Part 3 Retrospect
10 Mac Tontoh on Fela 85
11 Frank talk about Fela 93
12 Obiba plays it again 101
13 Smart Binete sorts it out 107
14 Anku checks out the beat 109
15 Nana Danso orchestrates 115
16 Fela: the full works 123
17 Interview with Fela 131
18 Afterthoughts, updates and ‘Felabrations’ 139

CONTENTS

Foreword by Banning Eyre ix
Introduction 1

Part 1 Early Days
1 The Birth of Afrobeat 27
2 Joe Mensah Remembers 41
3 Fela in Ghana 49
4 Stan Plange Remembers 29

Part 2 Confrontation
5 Kalakuta is Born 67
6 “JB” Talks about Fela 73
7 The Kalakuta Republic 81
8 The Black President 114
9 Amsterdam and After 125

Part 3 Retrospect
10 Mac Tontoh on Fela 139
11 Frank Talk about Fela 152
12 Obiba Plays It Again 165
13 Smart Binete Sorts It Out 174
14 Anku Checks Out the Beat 178
15 Nana Danso Orchestrates 183
16 Some Early Afro-Fusion Pioneers 197
17 Interview with Fela 204
18 Afterthoughts and Updates 209
19. Felabrations at Home and Abroad 238

Chronology 259
Notes 269
Selected Bibliography 281
Discography 285
Appendix A: “Shuffering and Shmiling” Score 303
Index 309

CONTENTS

Dedication ii
Foreword vii
Acknowledgements x

1. Introduction 13

2. Popular Music in Nigeria 19
Highlife Music and the BBC Radio Debate 38
Notes 43

3. The Social Construction of Highlife Music 44
The Etymology of Highlife 48
The Social Construction of Highlife 52
Notes 56

4. Historical Development of Nigerian Highlife Music 57
Roots of Highlife Music 57
The Pre-Independence Period (1950-1960) 62
The Post-Independence Period (1960 —1970) 74
The Post-Civil War (Oil Boom) Period (1970-1980) 86
The Period of Economic Depression (1980-1990) 93
The Last Decade of the 20th Century (1990-1999) 99
Socio-Cultural Factors 103
Political and Ideological Factors 106
Economic Factors 108
Educational and Religious Factors 109
Notes 113

5. Forms and Styles of Nigerian Highlife Music 115
Rhythm 115
Rhythmic Pattern A 116
Rhythmic Pattern B 117
Rhythmic Pattern C 118
Melody 119
Harmony 122
Musical Texture 124
The Highlife Form 126
Content Analysis of Highlife Songs 127
Classification of Nigerian Highlife 141
Notes 149

6. Nigerian Highlife Musicians 150

7. Highlife Music in Contemporary Nigeria 178
Highlife in South West Nigeria 179
Highlife in the South South (Edo and Delta States) 184
Highlife in the South East 186
Highlife Music in Northern Nigeria 189
Issues in the Revival and Sustenance of Highlife Music in Contemporary Nigeria 192
Sustenance of Highlife as a Musical Style 193
Sustaining Highlife as a Sociological Concept 198
Sustaining Highlife as an Economic Product 201
Sustaining the Ideology of Highlife 205
The Generational Factor in Highlife Music 206
Notes 210

8. Social Reconstructionism: A New Theoretical Model 211
The Stage of Social Construction 212
The Stage of Social Deconstruction 213
Stage of Social Reconstruction 215
Towards a Social Reconstruction of Highlife Music 216

Glossary 219
Appendices 225
Bibliography 232
Discography 239
Index 242

TABLE DES MATIÈRES

Femi Kuti, l’heritier naturel – Interview 5

Fela le combattant

Preface 21

Chapitre 1 L’histoire légendaire de la famille Kuti 25
Chapitre 2 Koola Lobitos 33
Chapitre 3 La république de Kalakuta 45
Chapitre 4 Berlin 1978 : rencontre avec le public occidental 61
Chapitre 5 Eko-Lagos 69
Chapitre 6 J’ai un doctorat de bon sens 79
Chapitre 7 Pas de remerciements pour le gouvernement  95
Chapitre 8 L’héritage de Fela 109

Discographie 121
Lexique 133

CONTENTS

 1. Preface 6
 2. No Agreement 21
 3. Colo-Mentality 40
 4. Eko Ile (Lagos Sweet Home) 54
 5. Viva Nigeria! Viva Africa! 78
 6. Chief Priest Say 91
 7. Alagbonclose 100
 8. Expensive Shit 113
 9. Kalakuta Show 120
10. Young African Pioneers 130
11. Second World Black Festival of Arts and Culture (Festac) 149
12. Unknown Soldier 183
13. Coffin for Head of State 227
14. The Ikeja Africa Shrine 249
15. Teacher Don’t Teach Me Nonsense 272
16. Look and Laugh 302
17. Beasts of No Nation 330
18. Underground System 371
19. The Fela Phenomenon 382
20. Femi Anikulapo-Kuti  414
21. Seun Anikulapo-Kuti Egpypt 80 427
22. Antibalas Afrobeat Orchestra 431
23. Coup de Gueule (Fit of Rage) 435
24. Felabration: One of the Solutions 445
25. Discography 452

CONTENTS

 1. Stranded at Abeokuta 4
 2. Hooked to music 11
 3. The Master Guitarist as the Pacesetter 23
 4. Major influences in my music 30
 5. The music business and the fans 35
 6. The Press and my Crown 45
 7. The King of Kings 51
 8. Christ as my Cornerstone 72
 9. KSA Foundation 75
10. Words on Marble 79
11. The Trail Blazer 86

The 68th Guitarist in the world 100

CONTENTS

Introduction  5

Part 1
Chapter 1 The African Roots of Jazz 7
Chapter 2 The Jazz Bug Eats Deep 13
Chapter 3 Return Of Bobby Benson 18
Chapter 4 No Bebop Posture Here! 25
Chapter 5 Visitor and Festivals 37
Chapter 6 1960’s and Great Experiments 45

Gallery 49-56

Part 2
Chapter 7 Jazz around the World 64

Part 3
Chapter 8 The Jazz-Derived Music of the Young 69

Postscript  95

CONTENTS

 Afa Ojo, She Who Commands Rain 22

 1 Abiku, The Twice-Born 29
 2 Three Thousand Strokes 35
 3 Funmilayo, “Give Me Happiness” 41
 4 Hello, Life! Goodbye, Daudu 48
 5 J.K. Braimah – My Man Fela 55
 6 A Long Way From Home 61
 7 Remi, The One With the Beautiful Face 67
 8 From Highlife Jazz to Afro-Beat 73
 9 Lost and Found in the Jungle of Skyscrapers 81
10 Sandra 91
11 The Birth of Kalakuta Republic 109
12 J.K. Braimah – The Reunion 115
13 Alagbon Close 119
14 From Adewusi to Obasanjo 129
15 The Sack of Kalakuta 135
16 Shuffering and Shmiling 142
17 Why I Was Deported from Ghana 147
18 My Second Marriage 156
19 My Queens 163
20 What Woman is to Me 234
21 My Mother’s Death 239
22 Men, Gods and Spirits 246
23 This Motherfucking Life 255

Afa Ojo, She Who Commands Rain 270

Discography 285

CONTENTS

Dedication
Introduction
Foreword
Preface

Chapter One Life begins at Kalakuta Republic
Chapter Two Early skill development at Afrika Shrine
Chapter Three The Kuti Dynasty
Chapter Four Afrobeat: The Macabre Dance
Chapter Five Egypt 80 and maturity
Chapter Six Honing musical skill in Liverpool
Chapter Seven From stage to studio: The albums
Chapter Eight Bad government: Activism through music
Chapter Nine Love for ‘Good Leaf’
Chapter Ten World musical tours
Chapter Eleven New Afrika Shrine
Chapter Twelve Fela! On Broadway
Chapter Thirteen Lekan Animasaun (Baba Ani)
Chapter Fourteen Motunrayo Kuti
Chapter Fifteen Oloye (Band Manager)
Chapter Sixteen Keith Richards
Chapter Seventeen Talking to the media
Chapter Eighteen Women in Afrobeat
Chapter Nineteen The future of Afrobeat
Chapter Twenty Matters Arising

References

CONTENTS

Cover page i
Abstract ii
Map iii
Acknowledgement iv- vi
Table of Content vii
List of Tables viii
List of Figures ix
List of Nomenclature x

Chapter One
Introduction 1
Chapter Two
Review of Literature 9
Chapter Three
Sources and Fieldwork 21
Chapter Four
History of Ajegunle Raga and Popular Music in Nigeria 25
Chapter Five
Construction and Negotiation of Identity in Ajegunle Raga 48

Conclusion and Recommendation 85

Bibliography 88
Oral Interviews and Discography 94

CONTENTS

Dedication iii
Foreword iv
Preface vi
Notes on the Authors viii

Chapter I
Family and Musical Background 1

Chapter II
The Lyrics of Celestine’s Songs 6
i.     Ejina Uwa anya Isi (Do Not Boast of What You Have)
ii.    O-bialu-be-onye (A Guest)
iii.   Okwukwe na Nchekwube (Faith and Hope)
iv.    Mma anyi egbuna anyi (May our kindness not lead us to doom)
v.     Mmefie adiro, Mgbayalu ama adi (No offence, No forgiveness)
vi.     Ilo abu Chi (The Enemy/Foe is not God)
vii.    Eji m Nk’Onye? (Whose Share Have I taken?)
viii.   Ome Ife Jide Ofo Part I 
         (Whoever acts should act righteously, Part I)
ix.      I ma Echi? (Do you know Tomorrow?)
x.       Asili (Gossip)
xi.      Uso Ndu (Sweetness of Life)
xii.     Onwunwa (Temptation)
xiii.    Ife si na Chi (Destiny)
xiv.    Ije Enu (Life’s Journey)
xv.     Ilo Oyi (Betrayal among Friends)
xvi.    Uwa bu Olili (Life is a Social Call/Sojourn)
xvii.   Onye akwana Uwa (Let none Bemoan the World)
xviii.  Onwu bu Ugwo (Death is a Debt)
xix.    Akwa a na-ebelu ego (The Worries Over Money)
xx.     Jisie Ike (Keep on Trying)
xxi.    Ome Ife Jide Ofo, Part II 
          (Whoever Acts should be Upright Part II)
xxii.    Ndu bulu Ililo (If Life were Weed)
xxiii.   Uche Chukwu Ka (God’s will is Supreme)
xxiv.   Ego Eju Aka (Money never Suffices)
xxv.    Onwu ama Eze (Death knows no king)
xxvi.    Ife Uwa adi agwu agwu (Earthly things are inexhaustible)
xxvii.   Ndu ka Aku (Life is greater than Wealth)
xxviii.  Chi ji Oke (God Is The Distributor)
xxix.    Ngozi Chukwu Ka (God’s Blessing is Supreme)
xxx.     Okwu Eji N’elo (Matters of Mutual Agreement)
xxxi.    Uwem Eriri Mbot Emi (Efik) – Life in this World
xxxii.   Ebe Mi o (Efik) – My husband
xxxiii.  Tomorrow is so Uncertain
xxxiv.  Man Proposes And God Disposes
xxxv.   Artificial Beauty
xxxvi.  No condition is Permanent
xxxvii.  Grade by Grade
xxxviii. Money Palaver
xxxix.   Hail, Biafra!

Chapter III
Celestine Ukwu: The Philosopher 93

Chapter IV
Celestine as an Educator 106

Chapter V
Characteristics of Celestine Ukwu’s Music 111
i.     His compositional techniques
ii.    Instrumentation
iii.   Structure
iv.   Language Delivery Style
v.    Themes
vi.   Performance
vii.  Costumes
viii. Relationship with his musicians
        a. Chi na Elo
        b. Uche Chukwu
ix.    Dance Styles
x.     Igede
xi.    Songs  – See Appendix

Chapter VI
In Memoriam 126
i. Tribute to Celestine Ukwu by the Celestine
    Ukwu Memorial Dance Band – CUMB
ii. Liner Notes on Album by Benson Idonije
iii. Tribute in Daily Star – “Celestine Ukwu dies in Crash”
iv. Tribute by his Brother, Damian Ukwu
v. “Adieu Celestine Ukwu” by Obi Anene in Sunday Observer
vi. “Terrible road crash – Celestine Ukwu killed”
      in the Nigerian Mirror
vii. “Musician Celescine Ukwu killed in Crash”
       by Dennis Okiali in the Nigerian Observer

Appendix – Some of his Transcribed Songs 135
a. O-bialu-be-onye
b. Onye Akwana Uwa
c. Ije Enu
d. Ho abu Chi
e. Ife uwa adi agwu agwu
f. Uwa by Olili
g. Hail, Biafra!
h. Grade by Grade

Bibliography 146

Discography 153

CONTENTS

Preface  ix
Yoruba: Language and Culture 1

A Short Biography of I. K. Dairo 2

Alphabetical List of Songs and Commentaries
 
 1. Á Yẹ wá Kalẹ́ 9
 2. Á Yẹ wá Á Rọ̀ Wá Lọ́rùn 10
 3. Adé Orí Mi 12
 4. Adeyinka Adebayọ (Col.) 13
 5. Àdúrà Blue Spot 15
 6. Ayé Fòtítọ́ Pamọ́ 16
 7. Àjòjì Ni Mo Jẹ́ Nílẹ̀ Yìí 17
 8. Àlàáfíà 18
 9. Allau Mọ Sọli 19
10. Angelina O Ti Lọ Wà Jù 20
11. Awólọ́wọ̀ (Chief) 22
12. Baba Da Mi Lare 24
13. Baba Mi Nígbà Tí Mo Bá Ṣáko Lọ 26
14. Baba Olú Ọ̀run 28
15. Baba Wa Lókè A Dúpẹ́ 29
16. Bakare, S.B. (Chief) 30
17. Baby Má Gbé Ìyẹn Wá 31
18. Bèbè Yìí Ga 33
19. Bẹ̀nàtadé 34
20. Benjamin Adekunle (Col.) 35
21. Bóńfò 37
22. Do Sisi 38
23. E Mami 39
24. Èjìrẹ́ Ará Ìsokùn 41
25. Èmi Ahun 42
26. Èmi Ìbá Lẹ́gbẹ̀rún Ahọ́n 44
27. Ẹ Má Mọ́bùn Ṣaya 45
28. Ẹ̀kún Rẹ́rẹ́ 47
29. Ẹyẹ Mélòó Tòlòǹgò Wáyé 48
30. Ẹlẹ́lẹ Turẹ 49
31.  Ẹlẹlẹ Mù Túrẹ 51
32. Ẹri Moha Ye Mi 52
33. Fọ̀nà Hàn Mí 54
34. Gbogbo Nàìjíríà Gbójú Sókè 56
35. Gown, Yakubu, Major-General 58
36. I Remember My darling 59
37. Igbá Ilé, Ma Mú Ṣoge 60
38. Ìgéréye Ìlò 61
39. Ijó Ọlọ́mọ 62
40. Ikú Yẹ̀ Lórí Mi 63
41. Ire Ni O 64
42. Iṣẹ́ Ajé 65
43. Iṣẹ́ Ọwọ́ Mi Mò Ń Jẹ 71
44. Ìyàwó Oníwàkìwà 72
45. Jẹ́ Ká Sọ́ra 73
46. Káyé Má Ṣelénìní Mi 75
47. Kọlawọle Balogun (Chief) 76
48. Kúlúsọ 78
49. Làbútú Yẹkẹ 79
50. Ladejọla Oginni 80
51. Ladejọla Oginni (Late) 82
52. Lawrence Ọmọle 84
53. Màá Bá Ẹ Ṣorò Ilé 85
54. Ma Oyro Ghana Fo 86
55. Méè Fáya Ọba 87
56. Mo Fara Mi Fún Ọ 88
57. Mo Gbójú Lé Bàbá Lókè 89
58. Ǹǹlẹ́ Mọ Ọwá 90
59. Olúwa Á Da 91
60. Olúwa Rẹ Àwọn Elẹ́gàn Lẹ́kún 93
61. Ojú mọ́ Mi Sí Pèré Òde 94
62. Omí Ọpọ́n 96
63. Onílé Gogoro 97
64. Òréke Lẹ́wà 99
65. Orí mi Má Fi mí Fáráyé Mú 100
66. Orilonise 102
67. Owo Ati Omo Niyi Aiye 103
68. Owo Wù Mí 104
69. Owuro Lawa  105
70. Oyín Mọmọ Àdò 107
71. Ọkàn Mi Yin Ọba Ọ̀run 108
72. Ọkàn Mi Yọ̀ Nínú Olúwa 110
73. Ọmọ Alárọ́ 111
74. Ọmọ Ọlọ́jà 113
75. Ọmọge 114
76. Ọwá Obòkun II 115
77. Porogún ilá 117
78. Rebecca 118
79. Rọra Fẹ̀sọ̀ Jayé 119
80. Rosana 121
81. Salomẹ 123
82. Ṣe rere Fún Mi 124
83. Shonibarẹ, late Chief 125
84. Taxi Driver 126
85. Tètè gbéra 127
86. Tíná Bá Wọlé, Òkùnkùn á Paradà 129
87. Wobuta Koyọ I 131
88. Wobuta Koyọ II 132

CONTENTS

Acknowledgment iv
Introduction v – viii

The Script (Narrative) 1 -14
Screenplay 15 -129

All incidents and scenes in the Screenplay took place in its originality.
But the names could be coincidental.

CONTENTS

Acknowledgments   ix

 1. Introduction: “Living in the Interregnum”:
     Fela Anikulapo-Kuti and the Postcolonial Incredible 1
 2. The “Apolitical” Avant-Pop Hustler   7
 3. The Afrobeat Moralist 24
 4. Dissident Tunes: The Political Afrobeat 50
 5. Fela, Lagos, and the Postcolonial State 87
 6. On the Shop Floor: The Social Production of Afrobeat 108
 7. Pedagogue, Pedagogy, and the Pedagogic Form 145
 8. The Cosmopolitan Nativist:
     Fela and the Antinomies of Postcolonial Modernity 157
 9. The Political, The Libidinal 166
10.  Conclusion: Afrobeat after Fela 175

Notes191
Bibliography 219
Discography 229
General Index 233
Song Index 241

CONTENTS

Foreword by Joan Baez vii

Introduction by Eric Charry 1
Bibliography 20
Discography/ Videography/ Webography 22

Part One – Learning the Rhythm
1 The Spirit of Drumming 29
2 Yorubaland 43
3 From Lagos to Atlanta 75

Part Two – Adapting to a New Rhythm
4 Jim Crow and College Life 91
5 Harlem on My Mind 123
6 Drums of Passion 136

Part Three – Passing the Rhythm On
7 Social Change and Civil Rights 163
8 World Music Comes of Age 193
9 Voices of Africa 213

Afterword by Robert Atkinson 237
Index 243

Photograph gallery follows page 122

CONTENTS

Acknowledgments ix
Glossary xiii
Introduction xix

1. Tradition and Afrobeat 1
2. Bard of the Public Sphere 33
3. The Empire Sounds Back 81
4. Idán, or a Carnivalesque 127
5. Alterity, Afrobeat and the Law 173
6. The Afrobeat Continuum 211

Bibliography 221

Appendices 237
Discography 237
Excerpts from the Constitution of the
Movement of the People (MOP) 254
Biodata/Inventory of Sonic Censorship 256

Photographs 265
Index 275

CONTENTS

Foreword vii
Preface ix

1. Introduction 1
Defining Popular Music: Western Models and African Perspectives 1
Definition and Scope 6
Focus on Western Nigeria 8

2. Cultural and Social Identity in Nigerian Traditional Music 11
Indigenous Concepts 13
Contexts of Music Making 17
The Status of Musicians 25
Sound and Instrumental Resources 29
Ensemble Organisation 33
Quality of the Singing Voice 37
Music and Dance 38

3. Historical and Cultural Background of Popular Music in Western Nigeria 43
Traditional Antecedents 43
Impact of European Music 45
Early Forms and Pioneering Performers 46
Islam and Popular Music in Western Nigeria 49

4. Musical Style and Social Themes 53
The Highlife 53
Juju Music 54
The Trio of Juju: Ebenezer Obey, Sunny Ade and Shina Peters 54
Style in Juju Music 70
Juju and the Nigerian Society  71
From Ramadan call to Popular Music: Waka, Sakara, Apala and Fuji 72
The Social Dynamics of Fuji Music 76
Post-Colonial Dynamics in Fela Anikulapo-Kuti’s Afro-Beat 78
Lagbaja: Moderate Politics, Great Music 86

5. Nightclubs and Popular Music 93
The London Connection 93
Music in Nigerian Night-Clubs: Socio-Aesthetic Currents 97
Declining Patronage of Night Club Music in Western Nigeria 102

6. Analysis and Conclusion: between Live Music and ‘Frozen’ Music 119
The ‘Invasion’ of Juju and Fuji 120
Aesthetics and lyrics 122
Home Entertainment 124
From Adult Music to Youthful Hip-Hop 126
Religious Factors 128
Popular Music and Social Dynamics in Western Nigeria 130

Bibliography 133
Discography 139
Appendix I 144
Index 158

CONTENTS

Acknowledgments ix

Introduction 1

1 Yorùbá Drumming: 
   Performance Practice and the Politics of Identity 16
2 Talking and Stammering:
    Toward an Analysis of Yorùbá Drumming 46
3 Songs of the King’s Wives:
    Gendered and Social Identities in Yorùbá Vocal Performance 70
4 The Aírégbé Song Tradition of Yorùbá Female Chiefs 91
5 Yorùbá Music in the Christian Liturgy:
    Notation, Performance, and Identity 113
6 Yorùbá Music in Christian Worship:
    The Aládŭrà Church 136
7 Yorùbá Popular Music:
    Hybridity, Identity, and Power 162
8 Yorùbá Islamic Popular Music 204

Conclusion 221

Appendixes
A Fieldwork 231
B Accompanying Compact Disc Track List 234

Notes 235
Selected Discography and Videography 255
Bibliography 259
Index 273

CONTENTS

Title Page i
Dedication vii
Foreword Ix
Preface xi
Acknowledgments xiii
Introduction xv

1. Prelude 1
Our Aspiration 1
Problematizing the Issues 2
Justifying the Rationale 3
The Implication 4

2. Socio-Cultural Interactions 6
Socio-musical Events 7
Functional Popular Music 13
Nigerian Reggae Music 15

3. Defining Popular Music 17
Definitions According to Specifics 18
Stylistic Definition 18
Sociological Definition 19
Process-based Definition 20
Theory-based Definition 22
African Popular Music 24
Ethnic Pop 26
Interethnic Pop 28
International Pop 29

4. The Reggae Genre 31
History and Etymology of Reggae 31
Growth and Spread of the Genre 37
Development of Various Sub-Genres 41
Modern Trends in Reggae Music 44
Nature and Features of Reggae 46

5. The Nigerian Reggae Scene 50
The Period between 1960 and 1980 51
The Period between 1980 and 2000 54
Nigerian Reggae in the Present Millennium 56
A Brief on Sonny Okosuns – the Pioneer Exponent 59

6. Reflections 64
Approaches to Pop Music Analysis 66
Musical Approach 66
Socio-Cultural Approach 104
Ideological Approach 108
Historical Approach 112
Problems of Popular Music Studies 113
Suggested Solutions to the Problems 117
Recommendations and Prospects 119
Summary and Conclusion 121

Fig. 1: A basic reggae rhythm – emphasizing 
           the ‘one drop’ pattern 46
Fig. 2: A representative score of 
           Sonny Okosuns’ Help 71
Fig. 3: A representative score of Majek Fashek’s 
           Send Down The Rain 86
Fig. 4: A representative score of Evi-Edna Ogholi’s 
           One Kilometre 102

Discography 123
Filmography 125
References 127

CONTENTS

Acknowledgment iii
Foreword vi
Introduction vii

The Early Years 1
Life at School 4
10 – 20 Years, Life Out Of School/Afonta 6
Dairo As Labourer 7
Talking of Juju Music 9
Tracing Dairo’s Musical Career 11
Morning Star Orchestra 16
Dairo and the first Blue Spot Band 16
Second Blue Spot Band 20
Touring 23
America and North America Musical Tour – 27 Days 33
North American Musical Tour 38
When the Chips Are Down 43
Musical Boomtime 47
Award Of M.B.E. – The Biggest Story 49
The Man Dairo and His Music 75
The Ultimate Musician 91
Dairo as an Apostle (C&S Holy Order) 99
Dairo as a Music Star 106
How Newspapers, Radio and TV See Him 106
Overview of Songs of I. K. Dairo (Old and New) 114
What is the Future of Juju Music in Nigeria 133

Books on Dairo 134

CONTENTS

Declaration i
Dedication ii
Acknowledgements iii
Abstract iv
Table of contents v

Chapter 1
Introduction 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Statement of the problem 2
1.3 Purpose of study 3
1.4 Hip hop culture 4
1.5 Hip hop in Nigeria 6
1.6 Code switching in hip hop 7
1.7 Limitatations 11

Chapter 2
Literature review 12
2.1 Code-switching 12
2.2 Borrowing 19

Chapter 3
Theoretical framework and methodology 20
3.1 Theoretical framework 20
3.2 The markedness model 21
3.3 Methodology 23
   3.3.1 Selecting the sample 23
   3.3.2 Transcription 24
   3.3.3 Justification of the selected model 24
3.4 Background information on the selected artist 25
   3.4.1 D’banj 25
   3.4.2 9ice 26
   3.4.3 P Square 26
   3.4.4 Wande Coal 27
   3.4.5 Tiwa Savage 27

Chapter 4
Data analysis 28
4.1 Background information on the data 28
4.2 SONG 1 30
4.3 SONG 2 36
4.4 SONG 3 41
4.5 SONG 4 44
4.6 SONG 5 47

Chapter 5
Conclusion 50
5.1 Summary of major findings 50
5.2 Recommendations 51
5.3 Conclusion 51

References 52

Appendices 54

CONTENTS

Acknowledgments ix

Trevor Schoonmaker
Introduction 1

Knox Robinson
The Father, the Sons, and the Holy Ghost 10
Mabinuori Kayode Idowu, aka I. D.
African Who Sang and Saw Tomorrow  16
Joseph Patel
Power Music, Electric Revival: Fela Kuti and the Influence of His Afrobeat on Hip-Hop and Dance Music 25
Vivien Goldman
Resurrection Shuffle 36
Femi Anikulapo-Kuti and Jérôme Sandlarz
Interview 41
Ghariokwu Lemi
Producing Fela’s Album Jackets 51
John Collins
Fela and the Black President Film: A Diary 55
Dele Jegede
Dis Fela Sef! – Fela in Lagos 78
Vivien Goldman
Thinking Africa: Afrobeat Aesthetic and the Dancing Queens 103
LaRay Denzer
Fela, Women, Wives 111
Nkiru Nzegwu
School Days in Lagos -Fela, Lady, and “Acada” Girls 135
Fela Anikulapo-Kuti and Barney Hoskyns
Interview 149
Sola Olorunyomi
On Whose Side are the Orisa (gods)? 157
Yomi Durotoye
Roforofo Fight: Fela’s Resistance of Domination 172

Fela Timeline 197
Map of Nigeria 203
Index 205

CONTENTS

Preface 5
Abstract 7
About the Author 8
Map 9
Introduction 11

1 The Years of Democrazy: 1999-2002 15

2 General Background on Nigeria
2.1 Religion 17
2.2 Politics 19
2.3 Justice 20
2.4 Freedom of expression 22
2.5 Women’s rights 24

3 Nigerian Music
3.1 Introduction 26
3.2 From palm wine to juju: 1920-1960 27
3.3 From highlife to civil war: 1960-1971 29
3.4 The Golden Age: 1972-1976 31
3.5 The Eighties: The end of the major record labels 33
3.6 The Nineties: Fuji style 36
3.7 2002: From galala to Afro hip-hop 37

4 No Money, no Voice: When Capitalism 
    Intrudes on Freedom of Expression in Lagos
4.1 Introduction: The limits of democracy 41
4.2 Economic laissez-faire and payola 42
4.3 Piracy: The silent war 46
4.4 Fear and violence: Music under siege 47
4.5 Praise singing: Economic death or spiritual slavery? 50
4.6 Religion versus music: Self-censorship, pressure groups 
      and bans in Lagos 54

5 Case Study: Femi Kuti – the Banning of ‘Bang, Bang, Bang’
5.1 Biography of Femi Kuti 56
5.1.1 NBC vs. Femi Kuti 59

6 Gangsta Rap and Makossa
6.1 High moral grounds versus the ‘Music of the Devil’ 65

7 Shariaphrenia
7.1 Harassment, censorship and violence in northern Nigeria 69
7.2 Music in the North 71

8 Case Study: Katsina State
Hisbas versus Hausa musicians;
Alhaji Sirajo Mai Asharalle 73

9 Case Study: Kano State
Sani Dan Indo, Haladji Waba Yarim Asharalle 76

10 Kano State Censorship Board
A protection for Hausa musicians? 79

11 Sabon Gari: The fear of the unknown 82

12 Conclusion and Recommendations 84

13 Bibliography 88

CONTENTS

Acknowledgement 1
The Author 3
Introduction 6

Chapter 1
Lagos 14
1.1 Ogun Ahoyaya 19
Chapter 2
The Missionaries 28
Chapter 3
“Juju” 32
Chapter 4
1900-1910 39
Chapter 5
The Eleko Affair 44
5.1 The Oluwa Landcase 49
Chapter 6
1920s-1940s 54
Chapter 7
Popular Music Types 70
Chapter 8
1930s-1940s 76
8.1 Ogun Ajakaiye Keji 79
Chapter 9
1940s-1950s 87
9.1 The 1950s – A Tumultuos Dedade 90
Chapter 10
The 1960s 96
10.1 The Challenge Cup 107
10.2 Post-War Lagos 112
Chapter 11
The 1970s – A Dedade of Two Rivals 115
Chapter 12
Juju Music Came to International Prominence 118

Milestones
Tunde King 121
Akanbi Wright 125
Theophilus Iwalokun  128
Ayinde Bakare 129
I.K. Dairo 132
Dele Ojo 134
Jesus Nwanchuku 138
Tunde Nightingale 140
Sunny Ade 142

Special Mention
Togo Lawson 147
Tunde Nightingale 149
Jofabro 152
Seigneurial Right, the Hausas and the
Colonial Government 155
Musulumi  160

Chronology 161
Epilogue  170

Selections of Juju Music Recordings (and other contemporary music) from the 1930s to the 1950s Vol. 1

The 1930s
 1. Oba Oyinbo – Tunde King (1936)
 2. Dunia – Tunde King (1936)
 3. Orin Asape Eko – Irewolede Denge (1937)
 4. Ojo Davies – Ayinde Bakare (1937 )
 5. In The Public Interest Of The Club
     – Nigerian Jolly Boys Orchestra (1938)
 6. Atari Ajanaku – Nigerian Jolly Boys Orchestra (1938)
The 1940s
 7. Mo Ti Boko De Calabar – Julius Olofin and His Group
 8. Pepeiye Orugbandudu
     – Piccolo Pete and His Congo Abana Band
 9. Which side money dey
     – Piccolo Pete and His Congo Abana Band
The 1950s
10. Golden Faces – Ayinde Bakare
11. Isau Adewale – Ayinde Bakare
12. Se Bo ti mo – J.O. Oyesiku
13. Brother Joe – J.O. Oyesiku
14. Awolowo – Ojoge Daniel
15. Orere ma redi – J.O. Araba
16. Turaka – J.O. Araba
17. Ogedengbe – Suberu Oni
18. Olomo lo lehin – Suberu Oni
19. Why worry lawa wa – Suberu Oni
20. Iyawo Oniwakiwa – I.K. Dairo
21. Lawrence Omole – I.K. Dairo
22. Awon Agbagba Ondo – Adetunji Ondo Orchestra
23. Ma majo Konba – Adetunji Ondo Orchestra
24. Obanla – F.A. Jimmy West
25. Awa sope – F.A. Jimmy West

Selections of Juju Music Recordings
from the 1960s to the 1990s Vol. 2

The 1960s
 1. Eni Afe Lamo – Dele Ojo
 2. I Don’t Know Why She Loves Me – Dele Ojo
 3. Enia bi aparo – Dele Ojo
 4. Sekere Alafin – Tunde Nightingale
 5. A Gbogungboro – Tunde Nightingale
 6. Chief Aruwajoye – Irewolede Denge
 7. Aya Rere Pada Wale – Igbekele Gede
The 1970s
 9.  Ibikunle Alakija – Ayinde Bakare
10. J.K. Randle – Ayinde Bakare
11. Iwalewa – Ayinde Bakare
12. Sisi Jaiyejaiye – Fatayi Rolling Dollar
13. Saworo – Fatayi Rolling Dollar
The 1980s
14. Freedom for all Black People – Dele Ojo
The 1990s
15. Awa Ewe Iwoyi – Ebenezer Obey
16. Iyawo – Sunny Ade

Chronology of the Evolution of Juju Music, its Competitors and Players from the 1930s to the 1990s Vol. 3

1. Awa O Sise (We are on strike)
2. Elemu (The palm-wine tapper)
1. & 2. Compositions of Togo Lawson  (He died without making recording of any of his many compositions).
3. Owo Nbo (Money is coming)
4. Pada Lehin Mi (Get back behind me)
5. Otutu Ki Meja (Fish never feels cold)
3.-5. Compositions of Irewolede Denge (His recordings spanned a four decade of the 1920s to the 1950s).
6. Oba Oyinbo (The British King) – Tunde King
7. Sisi To Fijo Sowo (The Female Professional Dancer) – An old juju tune; composer unknown.
8. Be Ba Nwa Wa (If you are searching for us) – An old juju tune; composer unknown.
 9. Enia Lo Keshin Loro (It’s man who taught the horse wickedness) – Folk song sang by Carretta, Fancy, Sailor and juju groups.
10. Iyawo Dara O Po (The newlywed (wife) is extremely beautiful) – social and nuptial song famous with juju groups in wedding performance.
11. Ma Sofun Obi (I will inform my parent) – J.A. Adedeji
12. Enia Bi Aparo ((Deceitful) people like the aparo bird) – Dele Ojo
13. Iyawo (wife, newlywed, spouse) – Sunny Ade (excerpt)

Narration by T. Ajayi Thomas
Music accompanying various compositions where necessary
by The West African Supersonics.

CONTENTS

The development of musical awareness
Classical musicians of Nigeria
Female classical voices
Afrobeat musicians
Nigerian pop music
Funk and pop musicians
Female voices
Juju music
Fuji music
Reggae music
Highlife music
Traditional northern music
Traditional southern musicians
Church music
Sir (Dr) Afolabi-Alaja Browne
Nigerian music’s promotion abroad

Bibliographical references 135-144

CONTENTS

Acknowledgments ix

1 Introduction: “Abami Eda” 1
2 Abeokuta (1938-1957) 21
3 “Gentleman” (1958-1970) 39
4 “African Message” (1970-1974) 77
5 “The Black President” (1974-1979) 121
6 “A Serious Cultural Episode” (1979-1992) 167
7 “Fear Not for Man” (1985-1997) 221
8 Conclusion: “Look and Laugh” 241

Appendix
Koola Lobitos, Nigeria 70, Afrika 70,
and Egypt 80 Personnel  261

Notes 263
Bibliography 283
Discography 295
Index 301

CONTENTS

Chapter 1
The Study of African Urban Popular Musics 1
1.1 Toward a working definition of the term popular music in
       sub-Saharan Africa 1
1.2 The ethnomusicological study of African urban popular musics 5
1.3 Africanist urban anthropology and popular music 11
1.4 Style as practice and communication: An approach to the 
       study of urban popular music in sub-Saharan Africa 23

Chapter 2
Social Heterogeneity, Cultural Pluralism, and Musical Style in Colonial Lagos 40
2.1 The development of Lagos: 15th to late 19th centuries 40
2.2 Social identity and musical expression in early twentieth 
       century Lagos 49
2.3 Lagosian economy and demography: 1914-1939 65
2.4 Lagosian politics and traditional musical 
       expression: 1914-1939 68
2.5 Class relations in Lagos during the inter-war period 75
2.6 Islam, Christianity, and music In Lagos: 1918-1939 82
2.7 Identity and musical style in colonial Lagos: an overview 90

Chapter 3
Syncretic Popular Music in Lagos Between the World Wars 94
3.1 Introduction 94
3.2 Sákárà: a neo-traditional Islamicized popular music 94
3.3 Asíkò: a neo-traditional Christian social dance music 107
3.4 Africanized brass band and ballroom dance music 114
3.5 Palmwine guitar music in Lagos: 1920s-1930s 121
3.6 Conclusion 146

Chapter 4
Early Jùjú Style (ca. 1932-1948) 149
4.1 introduction 149
4.2 The early jùjú ensemble 151
4.3 Early jùjú performance style 156
4.4 Early jùjú song texts 161
4.5 Contexts and relations of performance production 169
4.6 The social identity and economic status of early jùjú 
       practitioners 183
4.7 Preconditions for transformation: Early jùjú style 
       during the Second World War 193
Notes – Chapter 4 201

Chapter 5
Modern Jùjú Style (ca. 1948-1960s) 203
5.1 Introduction 203
5.2 Post-war changes in jùjú instrumentation and style 204
5.3 The relations of jùjú performance during the post-war period 218
5.4 Mass-reproduction, commercial dissemination, and sub-stylistic
       diversification in jùjú music: 1950s-1960s 228
5.5 Two sub-styles of the 196Os: I.K. Dairo and Dele Ojo 253
      5.5.1 I.K. Dairo: The dominant jùjú “star” of the post-
               Independence period 253
      5.5.2 Dele Ojo: Interaction between jùjú and highlife
                during the mid-1960s 258
5.6 Jùjú after the Nigerian Civil War (1967-1970) 266
Notes – Chapter 5 270

Chapter 6
Urban Popular Music in the City of Ibadan 272
6.1 Yoruba popular music in Ibadan 272
6.2 The popularity of traditional musics in Ibadan 286
6.3 The socioeconomic organization of Ibadan jùjú ensembles 294
Notes – Chapter 6 318

Chapter 7
Jùjú Performance in Ibadan 319
7.1 Jùjú performance contexts 319
      7.1.1 The urban hotel context 319
      7.1.2 The neo-traditional ceremonial context 333
7.2 Jùjú performance at Yoruba neo-traditional celebrations 347
      7.2.1 Performance roles 349
      7.2.2 Performance practice: text and context 356
Notes – Chapter 7 381

Chapter 8
Jùjú Performance an Aesthetic
and Ideological Communication 383
8.1 Performance evaluations 383
8.2 Four aspects of jùjú performance as communication 393
8.3 Conclusion: 
      The Ideological role of a West African popular music 408
Notes – Chapter 8 421

Publications Cited 422
Curriculum Vitae 446

CONTENTS

Acknowledgments ix
Technical Notes xi

1 Introduction 1
2 Sákárà, Asíkò, Highlife, and Palmwine:
   Lagosian Popular Music between the World Wars 27
3 Early Jùjú Music (1932-1948) 55
4 The Development of Modem Jùjú (1948-1982) 82
5 The Social Organization and Contexts of Jùjú
   Performance in Ibadan 148
6 The Aesthetics and Social Dynamics of Jùjú Performance
   at the Yoruba Àríyá 180
7 Jùjú Music and Inequality in Modem Yoruba Society 213

Appendix
Roster of Ibadan-Based Jùjú and Fúji Bands  229
Notes  231
Glossary of Yoruba Terms  243
Bibliography  247
Index  263

AUDIO CASSETTE
Announcements and talking drum by Adebisi Adeleke.

SIDE A

 1. “The Late Adeiabu.”
     Haruna lsola and his Apala Group (1958).
     Decca WA.3034
     Apala music. Song text pp. 20-22 Cited p. 85.
 2. “I. K. Dawodu” (excerpt).
     Yusufu Olatunji and his Sákárà Group (early 1960s).
     Badejo BBAF.1016.
     Sákárà band with móló (3-stringed plucked lute).
     Cited p. 37.
 3. Title unknown (excerpt).
     Sákárà group (probably Abibus Oluwa) (ca. 1936).
     Parlophone P0.503 (?).
      Sákárà band with gòjé (1-stringed fiddle). Cited pp. 37-38.
 4. Title unknown.
     Calabar Brass Band (ca. 1936).
     Parlophone PO.5??.
      African colonial brass band style. Cited p. 43.
 5. “Abonsa.”
     Jolly Orchestra (ca. 1936).
     Parlophone PO.531.
     Lagos palmwine group playing variant of Akan highlife
     song “Yaa Amponsah.” Cited p. 49.
 6. “Wallace Johnson” (excerpt).
     Jolly Orchestra (ca. 1936).
     Parlophone PO.570.
     Lagos paimwine group with “Hawaiian” guitar. Cited p. 50.
  7. “Orin Asape Eko.” lrewolede Denge (1937).
     His Master’s Voice J.Z.3/OAB.5.
     Yoruba palmwine music. Song text pp. 50-52.
  8. “Aronke Macaulay.”
     Tunde King and his Group (1936).
     Parlophone PO.508 (B.72142-1).
    Early jùjú music. Song text and musical transcription
     pp. 56-57 (figure 3.1). Transcription of banjo intro-
     duction p. 61 (figure 3.5).
 9. “Ojo Davies” (excerpt).
     Ayinde Bakare and his Group (1937).
     His Master’s Voice J117 (OAB.76).
     Early jùjú music. Transcription of banjo introduction
     p. 62 (figure 3.6).
10. “Abasi Olubadan” (excerpt).
     Ojo Babajide and his Group (1936).
     Parlophone PO.501.
     Early jùjú music from lbadan. Transcription of banjo
     introduction p. 63 (figure 3.7).
11. “Association” (excerpt).
     Tunde King and his Group (1936). Parlophone PO.500.
     Early jùjú music with violin and dulcetone. 
     Song text pp. 70-72. Cited pp. 235-36.
12. “Faji” (excerpt).
     Tunde King and his Group (1936). Parlophone PO.576.
     Islamicized early jùjú. Cited p. 74.
13.”Jubrilla Atanda” (excerpt).
     Ayinde Bakare and his Group (early 1950s).
     His Master’s Voice JZ.5810.
     Postwar jùjú style with amplified guitar. Cited p. 84.
14.”Ba Mi Gbowo Mi” (excerpt).
     Adeolu Akinsanya and his Rio Lindo Orchestra (early
     1950s). Decca WA.1930.
     Agidigbo/Mámbò music. Cited p. 85.
15. “Egan Mi Ko Ye O” (excerpt).
     C. A. Balogun and his Abalabi Dandies (late 1950s).
     Philips P82751.2.
     Ijesa substyle of jùjú. Cited p. 95.
16. “Saibu” (excerpt).
     Rafiu Bankole and his Group (mid-1950s).
     Decca WA.1519.
     Lagos substyle of jùjú. Cited p. 96.
17. “Pòtò-Pòtò.” J. 0. Arabs and his Rhythm Blues (1957).
      Philips 82011.2.
      Toy Motion. Song text pp. 98-99.
18. “Òrò Ré Rèpètè” (excerpt).
      J. O. Oyeshiku and his Rainbow Quintette (1958).
      Philips 82059.1.
      Toy Motion. Song text pp. 99- 100.

SIDE B

 19. “Salome.”
       I. K. Dairo and the Blue Spots (1962).
       Decca NWA.5080.
       The first modem jùjú superstar. Song text pp. 105-7.
20. “C Wúrò L’ojó.”
      I. K. Dairo and the Blue Spots (1968).
      Air check, Radio O-Y-0, lbadan (1982).
      Song text pp. 107-10.
21. “Yaya Mumuni” (excerpt).
      Tunde Nightingale and his Band (mid-1960s).
      His Master’s Voice 45-NH 151.
      Dairo’s competitor, “The Bird that Sings at Night.”
      Cited p. 112.
22.”Christiana” (excerpt).
     Dele Ojo and his Star Brothers Band (mid-1960s).
     Philips PF 383 321.
     Jùjú-highilfe blend. Cited on p. 115.
23. “Olowo Laye Mo” (excerpt).
     Ebenezer Obey and his International Brothers Band
     (late 1960s). Rereleased on Decca WAPS.432.
     Song text pp. 120-21.
24. “E Sa Ma Miliki” (excerpt).
      Ebenezer Obey and his Internationl Brothers Band
      (1970). Rereleased on Decca WAPS.436.
      Song text pp. 121-26.
25. “Austerity” (excerpt).
      Chief Commander Ebenezer Obey and his
      Inter-Reformers Band (1982). Obey/Decca WAPS 548.
      Song text pp. 128-32.
26. “Wá Woyàn” (excerpt).
     Sunny Ade and his Green Spots Band (1970).
     African Songs, Ltd. 97B.
     Song text p. 133.
27. “Synchro System Movement” (excerpt).
      King Sunny Ade and his African Beats (1976).
      African Songs AS26.
      Rhythm section patterns p. 134. Song text pp. 135-39.
28. “Ja Fun Mi (excerpt).
       King Sunny Ade and his African Beats (1982).
      Island Records ILPS 9712.
      Song text pp. 141-44.
29. Uncle Toye Ajagun and his Olumo Soundmakers.
      Live performance of jùjú music at a Muslim funeral in
      Ogbomoso (excerpt).
      Song text and transcriptions pp. 197-212.

ÍNDICE

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CONTENTS

Foreword to the first edition by B. W. Andrzejewski ix
Foreword to the 1996 edition by Abdilahi Qarshi xi
Preface to the first edition xv
Preface to the 1996 edition xxiii

1. Introduction
The social context 1
The Nature of Traditional Pastoralist Poetry 12
The Historical Development of Modern Oral Poetry 17

2. The Family of Miniature Genres
The Nature of the Family of Miniature Genres 27
The Poetry of the Miniature Family 32

3. The emergence of the Belwo
The Historical Background 49
The Belwo is Born 53
The Poetry of the Belwo 59

4. The Heello: Period One
The Metamorphosis: Belwo to Heello A 75
The Modem Poem: Heello A to Heello B 82

5. The Heello: Period Two
The Historical Background 95
The Poetry of the Second Period 103

6. The Heello: Period Three
The Historical Background 117
The Poetry of the Third Period 146

7. Characteristics of the Heello: All Periods
Themes Common to All Periods 175
Structural Characteristics and
Development Common to All Periods 190
The Impact of Media on Modern Poetry 208

8. Conclusion
The Inheritance of the Heello 215
Forces Behind the Success and Development of Modern Poetry 216

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CONTENTS

AFRICA

The North and West
Introduction: Peter Gabriel 1
Libya 3
Tunisia 5
Algeria 6
Morocco 13
Mauritania 16
Senegal 17
Mali 20
Guinea 26
Guinea-Bissau 29
Cape Verde 29
Sierra Leone 31
Côte d’Ivoire 32
Ghana 34
Togo and Benin 36
Nigeria 37

Central Africa, The South and East
Introduction: Manu Dibango 42
Cameroon 44
Zaire 49
Congo 56
Gabon 56
Angola 57
Zambia 58
Mozambique 59
Zimbabwe 60
South Africa 65
Madagascar 70
Mauritius and Reunion 71
Tanzania and Zanzibar 72
Kenya 74
Uganda 76
Burundi 76
Ethiopia 77
Sudan 79

TABLE DE MATIÈRES

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