CONTENTS

Contents i
Approval Form iii
Abstract iv
Acknowledgements v
Dedication vi
List of Tables vii
List of Figures viii
Acronyms ix

Chapter 1
1.0 Introduction 1
1.1 Background to the problem 1
1.2 Statement of the problem 4
1.3 Objectives 5
1.4 Research questions 5
1.5 Significance of the study 6
1.6 Assumptions 6
1.7 Limitations 7
1.8 Delimitations 7
1.9 Definition of terms 8
1.10 Conclusions 8

Chapter 2
2.0 Literature review 9
2.1 Introduction 9
2.2 Who music composers are 9
2.3 Copyright law and intellectual property rights 10
2.4 History and development of Copyright Law 12
2.5 Who owns copyright in a musical work 12
2.6 The Collecting Society in Zimbabwe 13
2.7 Duration of Copyright 14
2.8 How composers have benefited from copyright law 15
2.9 Rights protected by copyright law 15
   2.9.1 Economic rights 16
   2.9.2 Moral rights 16
   2.9.3 Mechanical rights 17
   2.9.4 Performing rights 17
2.10 Copyright Infringement 17
2.11 Piracy 19
2.12 Conclusion 23

Chapter 3
3.0 Methodology and research design 24
3.1 Introduction 24
3.2 Research design 24
3.3 Population, sample and sampling procedure 25
3.4 Research instruments 25
    3.4.1 Questionnaires 25
    3.4.2 Interviews 27
3.5 Data collection procedure 27
3.6 Data presentation, analysis and interpretation 29
3.7 Conclusion 29

Chapter 4
4.0 Data presentation, analysis and interpretation 30
4.1 Introduction 30
4.2 Responses 30
4.3 Conclusion 40

Chapter 5
5.0 Summary, conclusions and recommendations 41
5.1 Introduction 41
5.2 Summary of the results 41
5.3 Conclusion of findings 42
5.4 Recommendations 43
5.5 Conclusion 44

References 45

Appendix 1 46
Appendix 2 47
Appendix 3 48
Department Letter 49
Release Form 50

CONTENTS

Dedication iv
Acknowledgements v
Abstract viii
List of tables 13

Introduction 1

Chapter I
Back to the same: from great Zimbabwe to Zimbabwe ruins 17
Causes of the Zimbabwean crisis 20
The land question 20
Balancing act: Social justice and economic progress 25
ESAP 26
War veterans 27
The civic community 28
Land invasions: The third chimurenga 29
Rigged elections 31
Breakdown of the rule of law 32

Chapter II
Music, society and politics 36
Marxism and the arts 37
Music and social memory 41
Chimurenga music 43
Post-independence protest music 51
Post-independence chimurenga music 53
Music serving the state 57

Chapter III
Censorship in Zimbabwean music 61
Censorship legislation 66
Censorship and Entertainment Control Act, 1967 67
Blacklisting of music on radio and television 73
Harassment and intimidation of musicians 74
Self-censorship 77
Co-option of musicians and take-overs of recording companies 78
Recording industry censorship 80

Chapter IV
Towards a genealogy of urban grooves 82
From worldbeat to localbeat: Hip Hop to urban grooves 82
Defining urban grooves 94
Its grooving time: Urban youth culture takes center stage 96
The pre-urban grooves movement 100
Government intervention and the 75 percent local content policy 115
The Capital Radio saga 116
The B.S.A 116
“Urban Grooves Volume 1”: Urban grooves arrives 118
Issues in urban grooves 120

Chapter V
Infectious beats: State politicization of urban grooves 124
State sponsorship of urban grooves 131

Chapter VI
Deception, dissonance and subversion in urban grooves 146
Urban grooves or urban blues: Love, migration and the blues in the grooves 159
Laughter as medicine: Xtra large 171
Social dissonance as political protest: Maskiri 176
Disowning urban grooves 184
Toyi Toyi Hip Hop: Performance as activism 185

Conclusion
The sound of mourning 190
Endnotes 198

Bibliography 204

CONTENTS

Declaration ii
Dedication iii
Abstract iv
Acknowledgements v
Contents vi
List of Figures viii

Chapter One
Introduction 1
Musical Traditions and Historical Processes 4
Influences in the Popular Music 7
Research Aim and Rationale 9
Research Objectives 10
Research Methods and Procedures 11
Classifying the Repertoire 16
The Socio-political Significance 18
Chapter Summaries 19

Chapter Two
Literature Review and Theoretical Framework 21
Introduction 21
Towards Understanding Shona Popular Adaptations
as “Traditional” Art 21
Authenticity and Identity in Music 25
Adaptation of Traditional Music and Copyright 28
Structural Analysis 32

Chapter Three
“Doing the Serious Business of Older People Correctly”:
Zimbabwean Mbira Popular Adaptations 36
Introduction 36
Historical Background to the Performance of Mbira Indigenous Music 37
Strategies for Adapting Mbira Traditional Music 39
    Imitation: Entire Mbira Adaptation 40
    Sampling: Adapting the Standard Basic Mbira Part: Imitation 44
    Abstract Adaptation: Adapting Sung Mbira Melody and or Text 52
Connection between Popular Texts and Traditional Mbira Pieces 59
Conclusion 62

Chapter Four
Impacts of Shona Ngoma Rhythms on Zimbabwean Popular Music 66
Introduction 66
Understanding Ngoma Rhythms 67
Combining Technique: Interpreting Connections between Shona Ngoma Genres 69
Traditional and Popular Manifestations 74
Imitation: Entire ngoma adaptations 75
Sampling of Shona ngoma music 76
Jiti Popular music: Relationship between Musical Style and Lyrics 84
Conclusion 88

Chapter Five
Commodified Shona Music: Safeguarding Indigenous Musical heritage? Local Community Perspectives 92
Introduction 92
Preservation through Adaptation 95
Traditional Music and the Heritage Discourse in Zimbabwe 96
Community Members and their Relationships to Shona Traditional Music 98
Hearing Popular Adaptations as Nhaka 102
Discussions of the Traditional 107
Conclusion 109

Chapter Six
Conclusions 110

Appendix
 A List of Commodified Shona Songs 115

Bibliography 121
Discography 128

CONTENTS

Declaration i
Supervisor’s Approval form ii
Dedication iii
Acknowledgements iv
Abstract v

Chapter 1
1.0 Introduction 1
1.1 Background of the study 1
1.2 Statement of the problem 2
1.3 Research questions 3
1.4 Significance of study 3
1.5 Limitations 4
1.6 Delimitations 4
1.7 Functional definition of terms 5
1.8 Conclusion 5

Chapter 2
2.0 Literature review 6
2.1 Introduction 6
2.2 The historical background of Zimdancehall 6
2.2.1 Zimdancehall defined 6
2.2.2 The origin and development of Zimdancehall 6
2.3 The role of text in a song 8
2.4 The Impact of Technology on Music Production,
       Marketing, Performance and Distribution 13
2.5 The role of music censorship in Zimbabwe in
       view of vulgar lyrics 14
2.6 The marketing of music in Zimbabwe today 15
2.7 The context in which Zimdancehall is performed 15
2.8 Conclusion 16

Chapter 3
3.0 research methodology 17
3.1 Introduction 17
3.2 Research Design 17
3.2.1 Research Approach 17
3.3 Research Population 18
3.4 The Sampling Procedures 18
3.5 Research Instruments 19
   3.5.1 Interviews 19
   3.5.1.1 Advantages of interviews 19
   3.5.1.2 Disadvantages of interviews 20
3.6 Data collection Procedures 20
3.7 Data analysis 20
3.8 Ethical considerations 20
3.9 Conclusion 21

Chapter 4
4.0 Data presentation, interpretation and analysis 22
4.1 Introduction 22
4.2 Data Presentation 22
   4.2.2 Summary of reasons given by the interviewees
            on the use vulgar lyrics by Zimdancehall in Gweru 23
4.3 Data interpretation and analysis 26
   4.3.1 Zimdancehall and its origins 26
   4.3.2 Zimdancehall artists, their lifestyle
            and needs 27
   4.3.3 Zimdancehall production and marketing
          procedures 32
4.4 Conclusion 36

Chapter 5
5.0 Summary, conclusions and recommendations 37
5.1 Introduction 37
5.2 Summary of the Research 37
5.3 Conclusions 37
5.4 Recommendations 39

References 41

Appendices 45
Interview guide for Zimdancehall artists I
Interview guide for Zimdancehall producers II
Interview guide for arts organization III
Interview guide for pastors, church elders and youth IV
Interview guide for music critics V
Introductory letter

CONTENTS

List of Figures xi

Introduction 1
How We Understand African Music 5
Disciplinary Examinations of African Music 13
Theoretical Problems of African Music 21
Where Does This Study Fit In? 34

Chapter 1
Setting the Stage 39
South-Central African History, c 1800-1890 42
Don’t Tell Them Jesus Loves Them 51
Bibles and Bazookas: Capitalizing on Christianity 60
The Man in the Long Black Coat 65
A House Done Built Without Hands 82

Chapter 2
The Changing Nature of African Music 101
Indigenous Music on the Eve of Colonization 102
Western Music Enters the Fray 108
Orpheus McAdoo and the Irony of Minstrality 112
Musical Values in African Christianity 117
The Storm without the Music: Musical Ethics in
Southern Rhodesia 125
African Hymnody: A Case Study in Cultural Imperialism 129
Night Singing and Rising Cultural Protest 143

Chapter 3
African Popular Music Enters the City 155
Expressions of Indigenous Culture in Early Salisbury 162
Increased State Control over African Cultural Production
and Consumption 170
Township Jazz in All its Iterations 178
Masiganda: Singer-Songwriters in Africa 185
The Commodification of African Music 202

Chapter 4
New Ethics through Music 210
Black, Brown, and Beige: A Portrait of the African Middle Class 219
Education and African Culture 223
Reactions by the African Middle Class 231

Conclusion 234

Bibliography 240

INHALT

Vorwort 1
Stella Chiweshe – Through Mbira 3
1. Through Mbira – Einleitung zum Thema 4
2.1 Die Reise beginnt – Die Erforschung des
      Forschungsfeldes 8
2.2 Ambuya erzählt – Das narrativ-biographische 
      Interview 14
2.3 Felder explodieren – Datenerhebung 17
2.4 Das Schlaue Buch – Literaturrecherche 19
2.5 Fluch oder Segen – Informationen aus dem
      World Wide Web 21
2.6 Mbira-Musk in Theorie und Praxis – Methodik 
      zur Notation 24
3. Der Rote Faden – Fragestellung 32
4.1 Das Mädchen mit der Trommel in der Brust – Rambisai 35
4.2 Rinderhüten mit Folgen – über den Ersten Chimurenga 45
4.3 Der Umzug nach Bindura – Mapira 57
5.1 Die Mbira-Lektion von Sekuru Flavian Mavetu –
      Engendering Mbira 68
5.2 Das Zappeln geht weiter – vom Zweiten Chimurenga 78
5.3 Kassahwa – die Entstehung eines Hits 84
6.1 Meerjungfrau und Wassermann – Njuzu & Njuvi 91
6.2 Die Heimkehr – Stella Chiweshe begegnet mwari 
      musikavanhu 100
6.3 Ambuya Chiweshes Aufgabe ist vollendet –
      Ausblicke 104
7. The Queen of Mbira – Schlussfolgerung 106
8. Der Traum, ein Leben – Nachwort 108
9. Quellenverzeichnis 109
Anhang

CONTENTS

Acknowledgements 2
Abstract3

Chapter 1
Introduction
1.1 General background of the study: a personal note 6
1.2 Objectives of the study 8
1.3 Significance of the study 8
1.4 Thesis outline 10

Chapter 2
Locating the Magamba Network in the media
landscape of Zimbabwe
2.1 Introduction 12
2.2 The context of the media laws and the implications for
       democratic participation 13
2.3 The media regulatory environment 16
  2.3.1 Access to Information and Protection of
           Privacy Act (AIPPA) 18
  2.3.2 The Criminal Law Codification Act (Chapter 9:23) 19
2.4 The broadcasting regulatory environment 20
2.5 Diasporic media 24

Chapter 3
Theories and perspectives on the public sphere,
hegemony and popular culture
3.1 Introduction 28
3.2 The public sphere 28
3.3 Hegemony31
3.4 Popular culture 36
3.5 Critical appropriation 39
3.6 The struggle over language 42
3.7 Media and Internet – spaces of engagement 43

Chapter 4
Research methodology and data analysis procedures
4.1 Introduction 46
4.2 Qualitative research methodology 46
4.3 Qualitative content analysis 48
4.4 The Qualitative interview 54
4.5 The Interview guide 55
4.6 Sampling 55
4.7 Ethical concerns 56
4.8 Recording the interview 57
4.9 Observation 58

Chapter 5
Presentation and analysis of findings
5.1 Introduction 60
5.2 Freedom of expression and creative spaces 62
5.3 Hegemonic discourses – contesting narratives of
      patriotism and sovereignty 67
5.4 The politics of identity and critical appropriation (music,
      language and symbols) at both global and local levels 73
5.5 Organic intellectuals and the quest for democracy and
      social justice 79

Chapter 6
Conclusion
6.1 Introduction 85
6.2 Summary 86
6.3 Scope for further research 87

Appendix A 88

CONTENTS

Declaration i
Certificate of Supervision ii
Acknowledgements iii
Dedications iv
Abstract v

Chapter 1
Introduction
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Background to the study 1
1.3 Statement of the problem 4
1.4 Aim 5
1.5 Objectives 5
1.6 Assumptions 5
1.7 Research questions 6
1.8 Significance of the study 6
1.9 Delimitations 7
1.10 Limitations 7
1.11 Definition of terms 7
1.12 Conclusion 9

Chapter 2
Literature review
2.0 Introduction 10
2.1 Biography of Paul Matavire 10
2.2 The effect of gender construct as a source
     of Music lyrical content 12
2.3 Images of women in popular music 14
2.4 Women and popular music at international level 15
2.4 Mysogyn in Rap/Hip Hop music 16
2.6 Women and popular music at regional level 17
2.7 Women and popular music in Zimbabwe 18
2.8 Observations on women and popular music in Zimbabwe 19
2.9 Summary20

Chapter 3
Methodology
3.1 Introduction 22
3.2 Research Design 22
3.3 Theoretical Framework 23
3.4 Population 24
3.5 Sampling 24
3.6 Stratified random sampling 25
3.7 Methods of collecting data 25
3.8 Data presentation and analysis 27
3.9 Qualitative context analysis 28
3.10 Conclusion 29

Chapter 4
Presentation, analysis and interpretation of data findings
4.1 Introduction 30
4.2 Do you like listening to Matavire’s love songs? 30
4.3 Songs that Matavire is remembered for 31
4.4 The issues raised in the two selected songs 32
4.5 Who initiates the “Love Talk” in the episodes? 33
4.6 How are women is depicted in Matavire’s two songs 4
4.7 Lessons drawn from the songs 35
4.8 Discussion of findings 38
4.9 The role of musicians in redressing gender imbalances 39
4.10 Conclusion 40

Chapter 5
Summary, Conclusions and Recommendations
5.1 Introduction 42
5.2 Summary 42
5.3 Conclusions drawn 43
5.4 Recommendations 43
5.5 Conclusion 44

References 45

Appendix 1: Questionnaire 47
Appendix 2: Interview Schedule 50

CONTENTS

Title i
Abstract ii
Declaration iii
Acknowledgements iv
Table of contents v

Chapter One
Introduction 1
Chapter Two
Literature review 12
Chapter Three
Of speech and silence: Claiming the right to speak 20
Chapter Four
Disillusionment with independence 46
Chapter Five
Conclusion 66

Bibliography 68

CONTENTS

Declaration i
Dedication ii
Acknowledgements iii
Abstract iv
Key words v
List of tables xii

Chapter 1
Introduction 1
1.0 Preamble 1
1.1 Background 2
  1.1.1 Pre-colonial Shona music and social context 2
  1.1.2 Shona music during the colonial period 6
  1.1.3 The postcolonial period 10
1.2 Towards a working definition of popular music 11
1.3 Statement of problem 12
1.4 Aim of the research 13
  1.4.1 Objectives 13
  1.4.2 Research questions 14
1.5 Justification 14
1.6 Key words 17
1.7 Scope of study 18
1.8 Conclusion 19

Chapter 2
Literature review 21
2.0 Introduction 21
2.1 The nature of music 21
  2.1.1 Music as communication 25
  2.2.0 Language and music 28
  2.2.1 Music as literature 29
2.3 The use of figurative language in music 32
2.4 Music appreciation 34
2.5 The role of music in society 36
  2.5.1 Global trends in music and socio-political context 37
  2.5.2 Regional trends in music and socio-political context 42
2.6 Music in colonial Zimbabwe 46
2.7 Postcolonial music literature in Zimbabwe 48
2.8 Music censorship and freedom of expression 52
  2.8.1 Freedom of expression 53
  2.8.2 Music censorship 54
  2.8.3 Agents of music censorship 60
2.9 Conclusion 63

Chapter 3
Theoretical framework 64
3.0 Introduction 64
3.1 The sociological approach 65
  3.1.1 New historicism 67
  3.1.2 Marxism and popular music 75
  3.1.3 Afrocentricity 78
  3.1.4 Africana womanism 81
3.2 Conclusion 84

Chapter 4
Research methodology 85
4.0 Introduction 85
4.1 The qualitative research paradigm 85
  4.1.1 Research design 87
  4.1.2 Hermeneutics 88
    4.1.2.1 Characteristics of hermeneutics 89
    4.1.2.2 Basic hermeneutic questions and authorial 
                assumptions 99
    4.1.2.2.1 Precautionary authorial assumptions 99
    4.1.2.3 Hermeneutics and qualitative research 105
  4.1.3 Data gathering techniques 106
    4.1.3.1 Interviews 106
    4.1.3.1.1 Advantages of interviews 107
    4.1.3.1.2 A cautionary note on interviews 108
    4.1.3.2 Document analysis 109
    4.1.3.2.1 Merits 110
    4.1.3.2.2 Cautionary points 111
    4.1.3.3 Choosing research subjects 111
    4.1.3.3.1 Judge mental sampling method 111
    4.1.3.3.1.1 Advantages of purposive sampling 112
    4.1.3.3.1.2 Cautionary points 113
    4.1.3.3.2 Sampling of music critics 113
    4.1.3.3.3 Sampling of music 113
    4.1.3.3.4 Sampling of music consumers 113
    4.1.3.4 Transcription of music 114
    4.1.3.5 Translation of music 114
  4.1.4 Data presentation and analysis 115
  4.1.5 Ethical considerations 116
4.2 Conclusion 118

Chapter 5
Legal and political motifs 119
5.0 Introduction 119
5.1 Analysis of legal documents 120
  5.1.1 Legislation 120
    5.1.1.1 Freedom of expression 120
    5.1.1.2 The Censorship and Entertainments 
                Control Act [Chapter 10:04] 123
    5.1.1.3 Broadcasting Services Act 128
    5.1.1.4 The 75% Local Content regulation 130
5.2 Analysis of songs with a political motif 132
  5.2.1 Independence euphoria 133
  5.2.2 War memories 140
  5.2.3 The call for unity 144
  5.2.4 Exploitation of the subaltern 151
  5.2.5 The land question 160
  5.2.6 Corruption 171
  5.2.7 Political violence 176
  5.2.8 Political polarisation 187
5.3 Analysis of Interviews 194
  5.3.1 Profile of interviewees 195
  5.3.2 Interviewee responses 197
    5.3.2.1 Freedom of expression 197
    5.3.2.2 Censorship 201
    5.3.2.3 Reflections on independence 206
    5.3.2.4 War memories 209
    5.3.2.5 National unity 210
  5.3.6 Exploitation of the subaltern 211
  5.3.7 Politcal party music 212
5.3 Conclusion 213

Chapter 6
Socio-economic leitmotifs in Shona music 215
6.0 Introduction 215
6.1 Analysis of songs with a socio-economic motif 215
  6.1.1 Culture 215
  6.1.2 The concept of unhu/ubuntu 223
  6.1.3 Romantic expressions 227
  6.1.4 Domestic violence 234
  6.1.5 Divorce 241
  6.1.6 The HIV/AIDS conundrum 245
  6.1.7 Gender issues 251
  6.1.8 Poverty 262
  6.1.9 Escaping home:
           Diasporan discourses in popular music 270
6.2 Analysis of Interviews 279
  6.2.1 Music and culture 280
  6.2.2 Marriage and family issues 282
  6.2.3 Romantic expressions 284
  6.2.4 Gender 286
  6.2.5 Economic issues 288
  6.2.6 Diasporan discourses 290
6.3 Conclusion 294

Chapter 7
Discussion 295
7.0 Introduction 295
7.1 The creative environment of music 295
  7.1.1 The escape route 300
7. 2 Political motifs 302
  7.2.1 Sustaining nationalist meta-narratives 302
    7.2.1.1 Immediate post-independence reflections 303
  7.2.2 Counter-narrating the vision of the state 307
    7.2.2.1 Land 308
    7.2.2.2 Corruption 309
    7.2.2.3 Political violence 310
    7.2.2.4 Political polarisation 312
7.3 Socio-economic issues 313
  7.3.1 Culture 314
  7.3.2 Romantic expressions 315
  7.3.3 Domestic violence and divorce 317
  7.3.4 The HIV and AIDS pandemic 319
  7.3.5 Gender 320
  7.3.6 Poverty 323
  7.3.7 Escaping home: diasporan discourses in popular music 326
7.4 Conclusion 328

Chapter 8
Conclusion 329
8.0 Introduction 329
8.1 Research findings 329
8.2 Recommendations of the study 335

References 337

Appendices 373
Appendix A: Music critics 373
Appendix B: Artiste Interview 374
Appendix C: Interview guide: music listeners 375
Appendix D: Interviews with diasporans 377
Appendix E: Curriculum Vitae for Mudzanire Benjamin 378

CONTENTS

Declaration ii
Abstract iii
Opsomming v
Acknowledgements vii
List of abbreviations and acronyms xii

Chapter One
 Introduction to the study
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Background to the study 1
1.3 Literature review 4
1.4 The Nature and purpose of the study 11
   1.4.1 Theoretical approach 11
   1.4.2 Research questions 14
1.5 Research methodology 14
1.6 Organization of the study 17

Chapter Two
The typology of the Shona popular song-genre
2.1 Introduction 18
2.2 Classification of songs 19
   2.2.1 Problems in Oral Literary
            Classification of Songs 20
2.3 The appraisal framework 22
2.4 A Genre-based typology of the shona
          popular songs 24
   2.4.1 The genre theory 25
   2.4.2 The multi-rhetoricality of popular songs 50
2.5 The intertextuality of the Shona popular song 51
   2.5.1 Forms of intertextuality in Shona 
            popular songs 53
   2.5.2 L+R format 54
   2.5.3 Song revivals 56
   2.5.4 Appropriation of other songs’ tunes 56
   2.5.5 Dialogical level 57
   2.5.6 Incorporative level 58
   2.5.7 Monologism 61
   2.5.8 Repetition 63
2.6 Conclusion 64

Chapter Three
The tripartite classification of Zimbabwean
popular songs into clusters
3.1 Introduction 65
3.2 The “small voices in history” and
       “small stories” frameworks 66
   3.2.1 Guha’s “small voices in history” framework 67
   3.2.2 Georgakopoulou’s “small stories” theory 70
3.3 The “rediscovery of the ordinary” theory 72
3.4 Key features of state hegemony in Zimbabwe 73
3.5 A tripartite classification of popular songs 
      into clusters 81
   3.5.1 Grand narrative songs 82
   3.5.2 Small voices/stories songs 82
   3.5.3 Songs of ordinary life 82
3.6 Factors shaping notions of grand and small
      voices songs 83
   3.6.1 Grand narrative song factors 84
   3.6.2 Small voices song factors 93
3.7 Conclusion 97

Chapter Four
GNS and SSS’ contestations over meanings
of land and history
4.1 Introduction 98
4.2 The themes of land and history 99
4.3 The Chimurenga grand narrative as experiential
       basis for land metaphors 100
4.4 Ivhu = vadzimu metaphor 103
   4.4.1 National vadzimu as guardians for all 112
   4.4.2 Land = Nhoroondo (History) metaphor 119
   4.4.3 Land = Ropa remagamba (Blood of fallen heroes) 124
4.5 Conclusion 134

Chapter Five
Identity construction as evaluation of political
behavior in SSS and GNS
5.1 Introduction 135
5.2 Mapping identity construction onto the appraisal
       theory 136
    5.2.1 Attitude’s dimensions of judgement and 
             appreciation 136
    5.2.2 Political and national identities 138
5.3 GNS songs and Zanu-PF identities of
      self-construction 140
    5.3.1 The identity of kurwira rusununguko 142
5.4 Countering Zanu-PF’S positive identities in SSS 156
   5.4.1 The mudzvanyiriri identity 158
   5.4.2 The vaurayi venyika (national destroyers)
             identity 160
   5.4.3 The identity of uori (corruption) 163
   5.4.4 The identity of jambanja (violence and
             lawlessness) 168
   5.4.5 Zanu-PF and the kuguma (eschatology)
            identity 175
5.5 Mutengesi identity as basis for opposition
      persecution  177
   5.5.1 The nationalist origins of the mutengesi
             identity 177
   5.5.2 State usage of mutengesi identity
            in post-2000 179
5.6 SSS and MDC identities of self-construction 187
   5.6.1 The opposition and the identity of bumbiro
             remutemo (constitutionalism) 188
   5.6.2 The rwendo rwechinja (journey of change)
             identity 191
   5.6.3 The MDC and the identity of economic 
             recovery 192
5.7 Conclusion 195

Chapter Six
The evaluation of ordinary life through social and
religious identities in sol
6.1 Introduction 196
6.2 Njabulo Ndebele’s the rediscovery of the 
      ordinary theory 196
6.3 Religious identities 201
   6.3.1 The mufudzi/muchengeti (shepherd/keeper)
             identity 204
   6.3.2 Mutendi (believer) identity and
             transcendentalist imagination 209
   6.3.3 Mutadzi identity as quest for 
             individual liberation 224
   6.3.4 The kuguma (escatology) identity as
             dramatic representation 230
6.4 Social identities 240
   6.4.1 The umai (motherhood) and ubaba 
             (fatherhood) identities 241
6.5 Conclusion 271

Chapter Seven
Conclusions and recommendations
7.1 Introduction 272
7.2 The relevance of the topic 272
7.3 The importance of a combinatorial
       theoretical scheme 274
7.4 Land and history meanings as contestable 279
7.5 Identity construction as evaluation of 
      political behaviour 281
7.6 Social and religious identities and the
       evaluation ordinary life 284
7.7 The larger significance of the study, gaps
       and recommendations 287

References 289

Appendix 317

CONTENTS

Declaration ii
Abstract iii
Dedication iv
Acknowledgements v
Table of Contents vi
List of Figures viii

Chapter One
Introduction
1.0 Background and Personal Motivation 1
1.1 Central aims 4
1.2 Research questions 5
1.3 Rationale of the study 6
1.4 Research methodology 8
1.5 Ethical considerations 14
1.6 Arrangement of chapters 15

Chapter Two
Literature Review and Theoretical Framework
2.0 Introduction 16
2.1 History of Zimbabwean Music 16
2.2 Theoretical framework 25
  2.2.1 Postmodern feminism 25
  2.2.2 Postcolonial feminism 26
  2.2.3 Africana womanism 28
2.3 Gender studies in popular music 31
2.4 Conclusion 35

Chapter Three
Edith the Bassist: Challenging the Prescribed Feminine Roles through the Instrument
3.0 Introduction 38
3.1 Early childhood experiences: access to formal and
      music education 39
3.2 The years at Amakhosi: Influences and introduction
      to the bass guitar 41
3.3 Interruption of femininity through the instrument 43
3.4 So What! and the move to Harare 45
3.5 The birth of Weutonga (The New Dawn) 46
3.6 A Social commentator 47
3.7 Genre and performance style 51
3.8 Touring and collaborations 54
3.9 Technological advancement: An avenue for
       talent exposure 55
3.10 Government policy on women empowerment 57
3.11 Women agency: Nurturing female talent 58
3.12 Management: Formalisation of the career 59
3.13 Conclusion 61

Chapter Four
Sandra Ndebele the Bulawayo dancing queen:
A subversive rebel
4.0 Introduction 64
4.1 Conflict of religion:
      Christianity versus African traditional religion 65
4.2 Social responsibility 70
4.3 Fighting within the feminine: A feminism of difference 72
  4.3.1 Sandra’s unconventional dance moves 73
  4.3.2 Clothes and representations 77
  4.3.3 Marital support: Balance between roles 80
4.4 Marketing and publicity 81
4.5 Media canvasing reality 83
4.6 Going global: Touring the world 86
4.7 Conclusion 87

Chapter Five
Organisational agency in the promotion of female musicians
5.0 Introduction 89
5.1 Amakhosi Cultural Centre 89
  5.1.1 Origin and history of Amakhosi 90
  5.1.2 Amakhosi’s integration policy 93
  5.1.3 Women in the arts and Amakhosikazi 94
  5.1.4 Promotions and shows at Amakhosi 97
5.2 Pamberi Trust 98
  5.2.1 Pamberi Trust Arts Development Projects 100
  5.2.2 Female Literary Arts and Music Enterprise (FLAME) 104
  5.2.3 Workshop for women artists by women artists 107
5.3 Conclusion 109

Chapter Six
Conclusion
6.0 General conclusion 111

Bibliography 117

ÍNDICE

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CONTENTS

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CONTENTS

Foreword to the first edition by B. W. Andrzejewski ix
Foreword to the 1996 edition by Abdilahi Qarshi xi
Preface to the first edition xv
Preface to the 1996 edition xxiii

1. Introduction
The social context 1
The Nature of Traditional Pastoralist Poetry 12
The Historical Development of Modern Oral Poetry 17

2. The Family of Miniature Genres
The Nature of the Family of Miniature Genres 27
The Poetry of the Miniature Family 32

3. The emergence of the Belwo
The Historical Background 49
The Belwo is Born 53
The Poetry of the Belwo 59

4. The Heello: Period One
The Metamorphosis: Belwo to Heello A 75
The Modem Poem: Heello A to Heello B 82

5. The Heello: Period Two
The Historical Background 95
The Poetry of the Second Period 103

6. The Heello: Period Three
The Historical Background 117
The Poetry of the Third Period 146

7. Characteristics of the Heello: All Periods
Themes Common to All Periods 175
Structural Characteristics and
Development Common to All Periods 190
The Impact of Media on Modern Poetry 208

8. Conclusion
The Inheritance of the Heello 215
Forces Behind the Success and Development of Modern Poetry 216

CONTENTS

Foreword by Banning Eyre ix
Introduction 1

Part 1 Early Days
1 The Birth of Afrobeat 27
2 Joe Mensah Remembers 41
3 Fela in Ghana 49
4 Stan Plange Remembers 29

Part 2 Confrontation
5 Kalakuta is Born 67
6 “JB” Talks about Fela 73
7 The Kalakuta Republic 81
8 The Black President 114
9 Amsterdam and After 125

Part 3 Retrospect
10 Mac Tontoh on Fela 139
11 Frank Talk about Fela 152
12 Obiba Plays It Again 165
13 Smart Binete Sorts It Out 174
14 Anku Checks Out the Beat 178
15 Nana Danso Orchestrates 183
16 Some Early Afro-Fusion Pioneers 197
17 Interview with Fela 204
18 Afterthoughts and Updates 209
19. Felabrations at Home and Abroad 238

Chronology 259
Notes 269
Selected Bibliography 281
Discography 285
Appendix A: “Shuffering and Shmiling” Score 303
Index 309

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TABLE DES MATIÈRES

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CONTENTS

AFRICA

The North and West
Introduction: Peter Gabriel 1
Libya 3
Tunisia 5
Algeria 6
Morocco 13
Mauritania 16
Senegal 17
Mali 20
Guinea 26
Guinea-Bissau 29
Cape Verde 29
Sierra Leone 31
Côte d’Ivoire 32
Ghana 34
Togo and Benin 36
Nigeria 37

Central Africa, The South and East
Introduction: Manu Dibango 42
Cameroon 44
Zaire 49
Congo 56
Gabon 56
Angola 57
Zambia 58
Mozambique 59
Zimbabwe 60
South Africa 65
Madagascar 70
Mauritius and Reunion 71
Tanzania and Zanzibar 72
Kenya 74
Uganda 76
Burundi 76
Ethiopia 77
Sudan 79

TABLE DE MATIÈRES

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