CONTENTS

Acknowledgements 3
Abstract 4

Introduction 5
   Hip-Hop & Kenyan Youth Culture
   Research Problem
   Status of Hip-Hop in Kenya
   Hypotheses
The Setting 9
Methodology: Data Collection 10
Biases and Assumptions 13
Discussion & Analysis 14
   Ukoo Flani ni nini?
   Kaya Hip-Hop
   Traditional Role of Music in African Culture
   Genesis of Rap/Hip-hop in American Ghettoes
   The Ties That Bind
   Kenyan Radio
   The Maskani
   Ghetto Life
   Will the real Ukoo Flani please stand up?
   Urban Poetry: Analyzing Ukoo Flani’s Lyrics
Conclusion 33
   Conclusion Part I: The Future of Ukoo Flani
   Conclusion Part II: Hypotheses Results
   Conclusion Part III: Recommendations for Future SIT Students

Bibliography 43

Interview/Meeting Schedule 45
ISP Review Sheet 46

CONTENTS

Acknowledgements vi
Summary vii
Key words viii
List of abbreviations ix
List of tables xi
List of musical examples xii
List of illustrations xiii

Chapter 1
Introduction to this study
1. The aim of this study 1
2. Rationale 2
3. Research problem 6
4. Objectives and research methods 7
5. Delimitations of this study 8
6. Outlay of chapters 9

Chapter 2
The people of Kenya
1. Introduction 11
2. Political history 12
3. Culture 15
4. Religion and worldview 19
5. Language 23
6. Music and dance 29
  6.1. Traditional music 29
  6.2. Popular music 34
    6.2.1. Benga 35
    6.2.2. Rumba and soukous 36
    6.2.3. Tanzanian rumba 37
    6.2.4. International pop 38
    6.2.5. Taarab 40
    6.2.6. Gospel music 41
7. Gender 42

Chapter 3
HIV/Aids in Kenya
1. Introduction 44
2. Kenyan HIV/Aids statistics 45
3. Factors influencing the spread of HIV/Aids in Kenya 48
  3.1. Predisposing factors 48
    3.1.1. Poverty 48
    3.1.2. Sexually transmitted infections 49
    3.1.3. Drug abuse and alcoholism 50
    3.1.4. Conflicts and ethnic wars 51
  3.2. Other contributing factors 52
    3.2.1. Cultural practices and perceptions 52
    3.2.2. Religion 59
4. Those most vulnerable to HIV/Aids infection 59
5. The impact of HIV/Aids at national level 60
  5.1. Socio-Economic impact 60
  5.2. Orphans and vulnerable children (OVC) 62
6. Kenyan government interventions 63
  6.1. Leadership and co-ordination 63
  6.2. Existing Intervention strategies 65
    6.2.1. Voluntary counseling and testing 66
    6.2.2. Prevention of mother-to-child transmission 67
    6.2.3. Health system precautions and blood safety 68
    6.2.4. Condom promotion 68
    6.2.5. Treatment of sexually transmitted infections 69
    6.2.6. Creating awareness 69
    6.2.7. Treatment and care of people living with
               HIV/Aids (PLWA) 71
7. Visible achievements in the fight againist HIV/Aids in Kenya 72
8. Challenges ahead 73

Chapter 4
The people of Nairobi
1. Introduction 77
2. History of Nairobi 78
3. Population and culture of Nairobi 79
4. Functions of Nairobi 80
  4.1. Administrative centre 80
  4.2. Business and economy centre 81
  4.3. Tourism centre 82
  4.4. Education centre 82
  4.5. Media centre 83
  4.6. Transport Hub .85
  4.7. Sports Centre 86
  4.8. Music, Literature and Film Centre .87
  4.9. Residential Area90
5. Language 91
6. Religion 92
7. Social problems 93
  7.1. Crime 93
  7.2. Drug abuse and alcoholism 93
  7.3. HIV/Aids 94

Chapter 5
Theoretical approaches in popular music studies
1. Introduction 97
2. Musicological approaches to popular music analysis 104
  2.1. Schenkerian analysis 106
  2.2. Style analysis 108
  2.3. Multiparameter analysis 110
  2.4. Performance analysis 116
3. Extra-musicological approaches to popular music analysis 118
  3.1. Sociological and cultural studies 118
    3.1.1. Ethnomusicological approaches 119
    3.1.2. Subculture analysis 120
  3.2. Semiological analysis 125
  3.3. Feminism, gender and sexuality 130
4. An “eclectic” semiotic approach to African popular
    music analysis 133

Chapter 6
Reading Kenyan popular music:
Unpopular message in a popular song
1. Introduction 138
2. The artists 142
  2.1. Wasike wa Musungu 142
  2.2. Circute and Jo-el 144
  2.3. The Longombas 144
  2.4. Princess Jully 146
3. Music and Text 148
  3.1. Wasike wa Musungu: Lulumbe 148
    3.1.1 The Lyrics of Lulumbe (Strange Killer Disease) 148
    3.1.2. The Music of Lulumbe (Strange Killer Disease) 155
    3.1.3. Performance analysis 159
    3.1.4. Social significance of the music and text 161
  3.2. Circute and Jo-el: Juala 162
    3.2.1. The lyrics of Juala (Condom) 162
    3.2.2. The music of Juala (Condom) 170
    3.2.3. Performance analysis 174
    3.2.4. Social significance of the music and text 175
  3.3. Longombas: Vuta Pumz 177
    3.3.1. The Lyrics of Vuta Pumz (Take a Deep Breath) 177
    3.3.2. The Music of Vuta Pumz (Take a Deep Breath) 182
    3.3.3. Performance analysis 189
    3.3.4. Social significance of the music and the text 190
  3.4. Princess Jully: Dunia Mbaya Chunguzee 192
    3.4.1. The lyrics of Dunia Mbaya Chunguze (The World Is Dreadful, Mind Yourselves) 192
    3.4.2. The music of Dunia Mbaya Chunguze 200
    3.4.3. Performance analysis 203
    3.4.4. Social significance of the music and text 205
4. Conclusion to this chapter 206

Chapter 7
Conclusion to this study 209

Sources 213

Addendums
Addendum A
Wasike wa Musungu discography 228
Addendum B
Circute and Jo-el discography 230
Addendum C
The Longombas discography 230
Addendum D
Princess Jully discography 231
Addendum E
Trancription of verbal interview(s) with Wafula Mukasa 233
Addendum F
Compact Disc recordings: 238
Track 1 – Lulumbe: Wasike wa Musungu
Track 2 – Juala: Circute and Jo-el
Track 3 – Vuta Pumz: Longombas
Track 4 – Dunia Mbaya Chunguze: Princess Jully

CONTENTS

Cover page i
Dissertation committee ii
Dedication iii
Acknowledgments iv
Abstract v
Table of contents vi

Chapter 1
Introduction
1.1 The Country of Research, Kenya 1
   1.1.1 Climate and Geography 1
   1.1.2 History and Politics 2
   1.1.3 Kenya’s Cultural Diversity 3
   1.1.4 The Swahili Community 6
1.2 The City of Mombasa 7
1.3 The Place of Oral Tradition in Kenya’s Culture 9
1.4 Purpose and Objectives 13
1.5 Nature of the Problem 13
1.6 Research Questions 14
1.7 Hypothesis 14
1.8 Theoretical Framework 15
1.9 Methodology 19
1.10 Anticipated Contribution of the Study 21
1.11 Review of Literature 23
1.12 Scope and Limitations 27
1.13 Definition of Terms 29
Endnotes 30

Chapter 2
Origin and Development of East African Swahili Taarab
2.1 Introduction 34
2.2 Historical Background 34
2.3 Performance of Swahili Taarab 36
2.4 Contemporary Situation 44
Endnotes 50

Chapter 3
Style and Language in Swahili Taarab
3.1 Introduction 52
3.2 Problems ofMeaning in Swahili Taarab 53
3.3 Style and Fonn in Swahili Taarab Songs 59
3.4 Grammar and Diction in Taarab Songs 75
3.5 Content and Methods of Delivery 81
Endnotes 100

Chapter 4
Dominant Political Themes in Taarab
4: 1 Introduction 102
4.2 The artist and the Political Environment 104
4.3 The Question of Commitment 106
4.4 Politics in Swahili Taarab Songs 109
Endnotes 130

Chapter 5
Sociocultural Themes in Swahili Taarab
5.1 Introduction 131
5.2 Theme of Love and Romance 131
5.3 Didactic Themes 139
5.4 Religious Themes 145
5.5 Current Issues and Humor 149
Endnotes 158

Chapter 6
Images of Women in Swahili Taarab
6.1 Introduction 159
6.2 Swahili Female Taarab Artists 180
6.3 Summary and Implications 183
6.4 Recommendations 187
Endnotes 189

Bibliography 192

Appendix A 199
Appendix B 200
Appendix C 215
Appendix D 223
Appendix E 228
Appendix F 232

CONTENTS

Dedication iii
About the Author vii
Acknowledgements ix
Preface xi

Chapter One
Introduction 1
Chapter Two
The Politics of Everyday Life in Select Gĩkũyũ Popular Music
(1990-2000) 26
Chapter Three
Praise and Protest: Music and Contesting Patriotisms in
Postcolonial Kenya 51
Chapter Four
Joseph Kamarũ’s Music: Cutting with Words, not Swords 70
Chapter Five
‘Touch What You Don’t Have’: Mũgithi, One-Man Guitar and
Urban Identities 95
Chapter Six
Mũgithi Performance: Popular Music, Stereotypes and
Ethnic Identity 118
Conclusion
Music and Society: The Consummate Marriage 140
Postscript
Jane Nyambura (Queen Jane) 1965- 2010 148

Bibliography 155

CONTENTS

List of tables x
List of figures xi

Introduction
Entering the rhetoric and composition language wars 1

Chapter 1
History of hip-hop in Kenya:
Socio-economic, political and sociolinguistic context 18
Socio-economic and political context 19
Hip-hop routes to Africa 23
Early hip-hop in Kenya: From the suburbs to the inner city 27
Mapping the Nairobi urban space 28
The pioneers of Kenyan hip-hop 30
Kenyan hip-hop and language use: In the beginnings 32
Kenyan media and its role in spreading of hip-hop culture
in early 1990s 36

Chapter 2
Methods and methodology 39
In-depth phenomenological interviewing 40
Interview one: Focused life history 41
Interview two: The details of experience 42
Interview three: Reflection on the meaning 43
Building a trans lingual analytical framework 44

Chapter 3
Rappin like a Mkenya:
Translingualism as a construction of new ethnicities 47
Resisting Ethnic Identification 50
Jua Cali’s Story: Neither a Mtaita nor a Mluhya 53
Abbas Kubaff’s Story: A Kenyan but mostly a Pan-African 63
Nazizi Hirji’s story:
A combination of six different races and things 68
Conclusion 74

Chapter 4
“Wakilisha mtaani”: Trans lingualism as a performance
of street-conscious identity 76
Language and construction of a street- conscious
identity in hip-hop 78
But, can Nazizi wakilisha the Kenyan mtaa, streets? 85
   Matatu ride as an everyday street practice 88
   Storytelling as an everyday street practice 98
   Ways of dressing as an everyday street practice .102
Conclusion 108

Chapter 5
“Kuna Sheng”: Trans lingualism as language activism 109
“Kuna Sheng”: A language activism song 111
Promoting critical language awareness in the Kenyan media 114
Practicing and advocating for language preservation 127
Impact of Jua Cali’s language activism work: Conclusion 137

Chapter 6
“Tugenge yajayo”: Discussion of findings and implications 140
Multilingual theories as negotiated 140
Trans lingual practice in Kenya is tied to decolonization 146
Linguistic culture(s) shapes a person’s trans lingual practices 150
Is trans lingualism enough? 152

Appendices 155
Appendix A: My research story 156
Appendix B: Interview protocol 188

References 190

CONTENTS

Chapter 1
Introduction
1.1 Background and context 4
1.2 Definition of music 6
1.3 Rationale for the policy 6
1.4 Vision 7
1.5 Mission 7
1.6 Objectives of the policy 7

Chapter 2
The music industry
2.1 The situation analysis 9
2.2 Music education and training 12
2.3 Documentation and archiving 15
2.4 Media and advertising 17
2.5 The music and national identity 18
2.6 Music and tourism 21
2.7 Music performance 23
2.8 National development agenda 24
2.9 Music and technology 27

Chapter 3
Rights associated with music and artists
3.1 Copyright and intellectual property rights 30
3.2 Enforcement of the bill of rights 32

Chapter 4
Funding
4.1 Investing in music and musicians 35
4.2 Financial management 37

Chapter 5
Legal and institutional framework
5.1 Registration and affiliation of music organisations 38
5.2 Nationai music board 39

Chapter 6
Implementation plan 40

Appendices 41

List of accronyms

CONTENTS

List of Figures xiii
List of Musical Examples xvii
Abstract xx

1. Introduction: Composing civil society 1
1.1 Purpose and Argument 1
1.2 Theory: Positioning a theory of ethnographic contingency 7
1.3 Research methodology: A contingent ethnographic method 13
1.4 Literature Review 21
1.5 Background 33
1.6 Chapter outline: A contingently structured text 43

Part 1
2. NGO development, Kenyan music culture, and global NGO music industry initiatives 47
2.1 Introduction 47
2.2 NGO Culture Development 49
2.3 NGO music culture contexts 57
   2.3.1 The international popular music industry and 
             the spread of NGOs into Africa 57
   2.3.2 Historical contexts of NGO-oriented music culture 
             in East Africa 59
   2.3.3 Civil Society-oriented music organizing in East Africa 60
   2.3.4 Civil society ethos in East African music performance 62
   2.3.5 Music as protest 66
2.4 Conclusion 67

3. Civil society discourse formations:
Mapping Nairobi’s NGO music culture-scape 69
3.1 Introduction 69
3.2 Locating NGO music culture 70
3.3 Classificatory criteria 73
3.4 International organizations 79
3.5 Kenyan-based organizations 89
3.6 Conclusion 105

4. Economies of rememberance: NGO initiatives for the relocalization of East African popular music 106
4.1 Introduction 107
4.2 Decline: Destabilization of the mainstream Kenyan popular 
      music industry 108
4.3 Adapt: Strategies of music production and NGO economy 110
4.4 Rise: NGO music culture networks 116
4.5 Remembrance: Advocacy for past and present local 
      music culture 118
4.6 Conclusion 121

Part 2
5. Interlude:
Situating Part 2, a monograph of Ketebul Music 124
5.1 Introduction 124
5.2 Introducing a fieldwork-based study of Ketebul Music 125
5.3 Ketebul Music, a brief overview 127
5.4 Ketebul Music, afro-fusion, world music discourses, and 
      musicological critique 135
5.5 Conclusion 138

6. Contingencies of life experience in memory:
Reflections of founder and executive director, Tabu Osusa 139
6.0 Conceptual signpost 139
6.1 Introduction 139
6.2 Individual as agent of cultural change 141
   6.2.1 Childhood and polycultural influence 142
   6.2.2 Early migrations:
             Preparing a life of continual reinvention and relocation 143
   6.2.3 Individualism and agency: 
            Musical protests at the seminary 145
   6.2.4 Resilience and resolution 146
   6.2.5 Musical apprenticeship: Journey to Kinshasa 149
   6.2.6 The Virunga years:
             Recollections of Tabu Osusa and Samba Mapangala 151
   6.2.7 Music and politics 160
   6.2.8 The immigrant experience: 
             Life in the United Kingdom and returning to Kenya 161
   6.2.9 Seeds of the afro-fusion movement: 
             Formation of Nairobi City Ensemble 162
   6.2.10 HIV/AIDS and a lost generation 164
   6.2.11 Music studio as culture weapon:
              The formation of Ketebul Productions 166
   6.2.12 Commercial to nonprofit: Ketebul Music turns NGO 168
6.3 Conclusion 169

7. Social contingencies of organizational identity:
The music of Makadem and Olith Ratego 170
7.0 Conceptual signpost 170
7.1 Introduction 171
7.2 Constructing afro-fusion: The first Ketebul Music artists 172
7.3 Makadem 174
7.4 Olith Ratego 193
 7.5 Conclusion 205

8. Social politics of institutional partnering:
The spotlight on Kenyan music initiative 207
8.0 Conceptual signpost 207
8.1 Introduction 207
8.2 The development of the spotlight on Kenyan music initiative 208
8.3 Socio-institutional convergences of genre construction 209
8.4 Marketing cross-cultural: Volumes one and two 211
8.5 Bridging divides and reconciliation:
      Volumes three, four, and five 213
8.6 Social politics and institutional partnerships 216
   8.6.1 Alliance Française 216
   8.6.2 Alliance Française, Kenya 217
   8.6.3 Ketebul Music 221
   8.6.4 Kenyan department of culture 226
   8.6.5 Sponsors and marketing: 
            The French embassy and Total Oil 228
   8.6.6 The 9th European Development Fund grant 232
8.7 Conclusion 238

9. Studio ethnography:
The “sound” of Ketebul producer, Jesse Bukindu 240
9.0 Conceptual signpost 240
9.1 Introduction 240
9.1.1 Studio ethnography 241
9.2 The creation of Gargar and Somali identity in Kenya 243
9.3 The production of Garissa Express (2011) 246
9.4 Digital production and (ethno)musicological representation 248
   9.4.1 Vocal segmentation 250
   9.4.2 Instrumental infusion 252
   9.4.3 Signifying foreign locals and parallel otherness 257
   9.4.4 Fusing “traditional” and “modern” 258
   9.4.5 Post-production 259
9.5 Conclusion 261

10. Documentary film production at Ketebul Music:
Molding postcolonial historical discourse 262
10.0 Conceptual Signpost 262
10.1 Introduction 262
   10.1.1 Synopsis of retracing the benga rhythm (2008) 264
   10.1.2 Synopsis of retracing Kikuyu popular music (2010) 265
10.2 Social processes of historical documentary production 266
   10.2.1 Funding 266
   10.2.2 Forging lineages of african discourse 267
   10.2.3 Media production and self-directed mentorship 270
   10.2.4 Research and information gathering 271
   10.2.5 Post-research 275
10.3 From process to product: Textual analyses of retracing 
         the benga rhythm (2008) and retracing Kikuyu popular
         music (2010) 278
   10.3.1 Subversion of popular discourse in retracing
              the benga rhythm (2008) 279
   10.3.2 Polyvocality in retracing the benga rhythm (2008) 281
   10.3.3 Reconciliation and cultural hybridization in retracing
              Kikuyu popular music (2010) 284
10.4 Conclusion 287

11. Conclusion:
Locating meaning in contingent realms of global culture 289
11.1 Introduction 289
11.2 Balancing broad and specific, macro and micro, 
        global and local 290
11.3 Deconstructing representation 291
11.4 A Contingency-induced pragmatically reflexive statement 292

Appendices 296
A. Extended transcriptions of analyzed recordings 296
B. Human subjects approval 303
C. 9th European Development Fund 2010 Vital Voices And Culture:
     Increasing People’s Participation in Good Governance and
     Development call for proposals (CFP) 304
D. Oral sources 309

References 312

Biographical sketch 330

CONTENTS

Nseritu Munene
Preface – A Personal Glimpse i
Kakai Kilonzo
My Word ii

1. Early Days 1
2. …Then in School 6
3. Self-Reliance 12
4. Enter Mwania and Sila 18
5. Kilimambogo Brothers 24
6. Reflections 32
7. New Horizons 34

CONTENTS

Declaration ii
Acknowledgements iii
Table of Contents iv
List of Illustrations vi
Abstract of Dissertation ix

Chapter One
Introduction 1
1.1 The Agĩkũyũ People 3
1.2 Research Problems and Objectives 8
1.3 Literature Review 9
    1.3.1 The Mwomboko Dance 10
    1.3.2 Mwomboko within Mũgithi 13
1.4 Principal theories in which this study is based upon 14
1.5 Research Methodology and Methods 15
1.6 Summary abstract of the rest of the chapters 20
1.7 Glossary of Terms 22

Chapter Two
History of Mwomboko, Gĩcandĩ and Irua 23
2.1 Irua Music 24
2.2 Gĩcandĩ Music 27
2.3 Mwomboko Music 29
2.4 Conclusion 32

Chapter Three
The Birth of the 1990s Mũgithi Concept
Through its Performers 34
3.1 The Birth and Development of Mũgithi Music (1970s-1980s) 35
    3.1.1 Joseph Kamaru 37
3.2 The Birth and Develoment of the Mũgithi Performance 
      (1990s- 2009) 39
    3.2.1 Mike Rua 43
    3.2.2 Salim ‘Junior’ 46
    3.2.3 Salim ‘Mighty’ 49

Chapter Four
Mũgithi Music and the Establishment of Style 53
4.1 Mũgithi through the Singer-cum-guitarist and 
      Drummer Performance Concept 54
4.2 Mũgithi’s use of Popular Music 57
4.3 Mwomboko Section 58
    4.3.1 Gĩcandĩ Lyrics 59
    4.3.2 Voice and Guitar Relationship 63
    4.3.3 lrua Lyrics 72
4.4 Gospel Music 73
4.5 Conclusion 73

Chapter Five
 Social Cohesion through Performance 75
5.1 Mwomboko Music and Social Cohesion 76
    5.1.1 Mboco Ĩrĩ Mbuca 76
    5.1.2 Cheni Ni Cheni 79
    5.1.3 Twathiaga Tukenete 80
    5.1.4 Kibata Kia Matuko Maya 83
    5.1.5 Ngahikania Nenda 84
5.2 Conclusion 85

Bibliography 92

Appendix I
Transcriptions 96
Appendix II
Film- Paper Edit 139

CONTENTS

Table of Contents vii
List of Illustrations ix
Foreword by Juliani (Julius Owino) xi

Preface xiii
Acknowledgments xix

1. Intersections, Overlaps, and Collaborations 1
2. Cultural Preferences, Christianity, and the Street 23
3. Hip Hop’s Recasting of Christianity and Gospel Music in Kenya 46
4. Kama Si Sisi Nani? Juliani’s Gospel of Self-Empowerment 49
5. Media and Contested Christian Identities 95
6. Juliani: Lyrical Genius with a Socially Conscious Message 119
Conclusion: Parallel but Intersecting Paths 141

Appendix: Shops Selling Juliani’s Exponential Potential 151

Notes 153
Glossary 157
Discography 159
Bibliography 161
Index 177

CONTENTS

Declaration
Abstract
Dedication
Acknowledgements
Abbreviations

Part 1
Introduction xi
       
Chapter One
‘Poverty, piracy, poor facilities and government indifference’:
the political economy of the Kenyan Music industry 1
1.1 The Production of culture 2
   1.1.1 The example of ‘Unbwogable’ 4
1.2 Then and now: A profile of Kenya’s music industry 10
    1.2.1 Of media hype and the millennium boom 14
1.3 Piracy 20
    1.3.1 Polic(y)ing the industry 26
1.4 The markets 30
1.5 Conclusion 36

Part 2

Chapter Two
The In(ter)vention of names 39
2.1 Author(is)ing authority 41
2.2 In Search of the authentic 52
2.3 Discourses from afar 60
2.3.1 The middle ground 68
2.4 The power of the nickname 69
2.5 ‘My signifier is more native [Kenyan] than yours’ 72

Chapter Three
Zilizopendwa: Between the romantic and the discordant –
cover versions, remix and sampling in the (re)membering of Kenya 79
3.1 Popular music as memory 81
3.2 Zilizopendwa as cover versions 86
    3.2.1 Modernising the folksongs 90
3.3 Remix: Irony and disjuncture 98
3.4 Remix as continuity 105
3.5 Samples of the past 113
3.6 Conclusion 122
 
Chapter Four
(Re)Figuring the city: The mapping of places and people 125
4.1 Theorising space 126
4.2 Nairobi: ‘Green city in the sun’ 130
4.3 Walking in the margins vs. walking in the city 140
    4.3.1 Of local Mona Lisas 144
    4.3.2 Thugs and conmen 147
4.4 Conclusion 152

Chapter Five
Kenyan hip hop: Of global networks and the circulation
of local soundtracks 157
5.1 ‘Bridges of Sound’: More than global, less than local 159
5.2 ‘Uhiki’ and the Legacy of ‘Put up Your Hands and 
       You Scream’ 164
    5.2.1 Matatus: Soundtracks and trendsetters 171
    5.2.2 ‘Ting Badi Malo’ and the further domestication 
              of hip hop 176
5.3 ‘Ukilya Moko’: Gospel goes hip hop 183
5.4 Conclusion 189

Chapter Six
‘Ritwa Riaku’ and ‘Unbwogable’: National Longing and the antinomies of the postcolonial nation 193
6.1 Reading postcolonial politics 194
6.2 Corruption and ethnicity in Sawa Sawa 203
    6.2.1 ‘Daima’: Between cycles of betrayal and hope 217
6.3 Transforming ethnic discourse into national desire 224
    6.3.1 Rewriting national history 227
6.4 Conclusion 235

Conclusion 240

Works cited 254
Selected discography 270

Appendix     
i) Interviews 272
ii) Web discourse 273
iii) Kalapapla (2003) album sleeve 277
iv) Web discourse 278
v) Map — Nairobi metropolitan area 280
vi) Adverts
    a) Nissan Hardbody – Atoti 281
    b) Flamingo Airlines – ‘But Do we Say’ 282
    c) VCT – Eric Wainaina 283

CONTENTS

Setting the Background 2
What exactly is Benga Music? 2
Tradition – Adaptations and Innovations 3
Transition to Benga 4
The Ogara Years 4
– John Ogara Odondi “Kaisa”
– Samuel Aketch Oyosi “Jabuya”
Electric Bands and Big Producers 5
– Ochieng’ Nelly Orwa
– Melodica’s Teeth
1960s-1970s the Golden Decades 7
– Oluoch Kanindo
– Ochieng Nelly Mengo
– George Ramogi
– Collela Mazee
Benga Spreads its Wings 10
– Kisii Nyanza
– Western
– Christopher Monyoncho Arka
– Sukuma bin Ongaro
– Angelica Chepkoec
– Rift Valley
– Central
– Eastern
– D.K. Mwai
– Francis Danger
Shapers of Benga 15
– D. O. Misiani
River Road and the “Sessionists” 16
Benga Mediums 17
Benga Beyond Kenya 18
Origin of the World 18
Does Benga have a Future? 18
– Paul Orwa “Jasolo”
– Eric Wainaina
The Benga Ladies 22
Anthology of Early Music Poets 23

CD
01. SAMUEL AKETCH John Ogara / Ochieng’ Nelly (1965)
02. MONICA ONDEGO John Ogara (1963)
03. MY BEST WISHES TO CONNY
       George Ojijo / George Ramogi (1972)
04. LALA SALAMA D. O. Misiani (1973)
05. SEREFANUS ANDAI  Shem Tube Andai / Simon Ayuya (1975)
06. I LOVE YOU D. K. Mwai (1970)
07. AMUKA SALAMA D. O. Misiani (1974)
08. NINKI MOGATEGETE John Arisi Osababu (unknown)*
09. SABINA YA NELLY Nelson Ochieng’ Mengo (1977)
10. WAKUMBUKE WAZAZI
      Kakai Kilonzo / Francis Danger (1989)
11. KWAHERI JOHANA Kalenjin Sisters (1990)
12. MAXIMILLA Sukuma Bin Ongaro (1990)
13. ARUWA DR. O.K. Dr. Collela Mazee (1980)

*Exact recording dates are difficult to determine as many songs
  of this era had little information printed on the record labels.

CONTENTS

Foreword by Dr. Joyce Nyairo 5

1. Mapping the Music 6
From the 1890s, The oral traditions of the Gikuyu were greatly disrupted and eroded by their protracted encounters with British colonialism.

2. Influences: The Accordion, Yodelling, and, the Acoustic Guitar 10
Modern Gikuyu musicians echo some of the key characteristics of American Country musicians, including their dress style, complete with stetson hats, cowboy boots 6 denim suits.

3. The Emergence of Joseph Kamaru 25
With over 3,000 compositions performed in at least 3 languages and in an array of styles and genres, Kamaru is the undisputed King of Kikuyu popular music.

4. The Benga Invasion and the Boys from Gatanga 32
The 1970s saw Kikuyu music grow in new directions as artistes engaged in collaborations with musicians from other communities, in particular Luo guitarists skilled in Benga.

5. Gospel Wins the Day! 54
Gospel music by the Akorino sect represented the authentic Kikuyu gospel rhythms.

6. Production: River Road, Radio and Road Shows 57
During the reign of pioneer Kikuyu musicians recording was a haphazard affair dependent upon the whims of the international recording labels of the time such as East African Records.

7. Mugithi Nights: The Return to Roots 63
The old Pentecostal Kikuyu hymn that celebrates ‘Mugithi wa Matu-ini’ (the train to the heavens) is the genesis of the term Mugithi.

8. New Directions: Kameme Online 75
The future of Kikuyu popular music seems to belong to those artistes who can retain the essence of Kikuyu rhythm and idiom while at the same time welding these sounds to global music forms.

CD

01. NYERI KWA RUBATHI Shinda Gikombe (1952)
02. MAYAI John Arthur (1948)
03. KWINI MARITATI H.M. Karuiki (1978)
04. ROSANNA Sammy Ngaku (1948)
05. GIKUU NI KIURU Wanganangu & Meeciria (1985)
06. GWITU NI RIABAI  Sammy Ngaku (1948)
07. NDINAKURUMA Mwangi wa Maguru (1957)
08. KUNDA RURU Roman Warigi (1962)
09. MUTHONI COOKA THIKA Roman Warigi (1962)
10. MUHIKI Roman Warigi (1962)
11. NDARI IKUMI NA INYA Joseph Kamaru (1966)
12. NDARI YA MWARIMU Joseph Kamaru (1969)
13. ANDU A MADARAKA Joseph Kamaru (1969)
14. NJOHI NDIRI MWARIMU Joseph Kamaru (1966)
15. RUGANO RWA NAIVASHA S. K. Kimani (1979)
16. SINYORITA Francis Rugwiti (1979)
17. CUCU WA GAKUNGA  John Ndichu (1978)
18. TIGA KUMUTE J. B. Maina (1992)
19. NANA D.K. Mwai (1976)

CONTENTS

Foreword 7

1. James Brown 8
2. The Starlight Club 10
3. Robbie Armstrong 12
4. The Ashantis 14
5. Cavaliers 16
6. Air Fiesta Matata 18
7. Steele Beuttah 20
8. Hodi Boys 22
9. Faisal Brown 24
10. JumaToto 26
11. Slim Ali 28
12. Ben Nicholas 30
13. Kelly Brown 32
14. Ismael Jingo 34
15. Sal Davies 36
16. Makonde 40
17. Alan Donovan 42
18. African Heritage 44
19. Musikly Speaking 45
20. Gordon Ominde 46
21. From The Funky Photo File 48
22. The Boogies 64
23. Funk Radio 66
24. Abdul Haq 68
25. George Opiyo 69
26. Kazungu Katana 69
27. Nicola Miyawa 70
28. Mahanjam Mike 71
29. Salaams Clubs 72
30. Mombasa Funk 74
31. Kisumu Funk 76
32. Disco Kills Funk 77
33. Funky Vinyl 78

CD
01. MAKINI Sal Davies 1969
02. EVERYBODY’S GROOVE Ashantis 1975
03. I WANNA DO MY THING Air Fiesta Matata 1972
04. FROG SOUL Faisal Brown & The Hodi Boys 1971
05. SAVAGED Black Savage 1977
06. DUNIA INA MAMBO The Mighty Cavaliers 1976
07. YOU CAN DO IT Slim Ali & The Hodi Boys 1977
08. LET’S STAY TOGETHER Ashantis 1975
09. WHAT’S THAT SOUND Steele Beauttah 1975
10. MAMBO BADO The Mighty Cavaliers 1980
11. I DON’T KNOW WHAT TO DO Black Savage 1977
12. GIMME SOMETHING LOVE Slim Ali & The Hodi Boys 1977
13. AFRICAN STOMP Air Fiesta Matata 1976
14. FEVER Ismael Jingo 1974
15. HIGHER Kelly Brown 1980

CONTENTS

Acknowledgements & Credits 8
Foreword 9

Chapter 1
Colonialism & The Freedom Struggle 11
Chapter 2
Independence & Self Rule 15
Chapter 3
The Kenyatta Era 19
Chapter 4
The Nyayo Era 25
Chapter 5
Political Assassinations 37
Chapter 6
The End of The Road 47
Chapter 7
The Post Nyayo Era 57
Chapter 8
Crucible of Protest 67
Chapter 9
From Kenyatta to Kenyatta 79
Chapter 10
Protest In Pictures 83
Chapter 11
CD Compilation 97

CD

01. Unbwogable Gidigidi Majimaji (Unbwogble, 2005)
02. GANGSTERS IN PARLIAMENT
       Jabali Afrika (Rebellion 1963 To The Future. 2012)
03. NLCHI YA KITU KIDOGO Eric Wainaina (Sawa Sawa, 2001)
04. LUNCH TIME Nairobi City Ensemble (KaBoum Boum, 2002)
05. NINDARONA NJIRA Zingamoto Afrika 
      (Spotlight On Kenyan Music Vol 2, 2006)
06. BWANA SERIKALI Necessary Noize ft. Bryo & Jerry Doobie 
      (Neccessary Noize, 2000)
07. BAHASHA YA OCAMPO Juliani (Pulpit Kwa Street, 2011)
08. NAKUJA Sauti (Spotlight On Kenyan Music Vol 2, 2006)
09. TEACHINGS Makadem (Teachings, 2005)
10. RAIS WANGU Winyo (Rais Wangu, 2012)
11. TAFSIRI HII Kalamashaka (Tafsiri Hii, 1997)
12. MAPAMBANO Makadem (Mapambano, 2007)
13. URITHI Iddi Achieng’ (Weapon Of Mass Reconciliation, 2012)-
14. UTAWALA Juliani (Utawala, 2013)
15. WEKATAYA Makadem (Weka Taya, 2007)
16. PEOPLE’S VOICE Jabali Afrika (Mayosi, 2006)

CONTENTS

The Forgotten Legends of Nairobi’s River Road… iii
Acknowledgements xv
Preface xvii

01 The Pioneers 1
World War II – The African Entertainment Unit 3
Peter Colmore – The African Band 7
Mwenda & Masengo – The Congo Connection 11
Equator Sound – Malaika, The Controversy 15
Pioneer Labels & Studios 21
Roving Bands 27
Chapter 01 Profiles 31
Paul Mwachupa 33
Fundi Konde 35
Fadhili William 37
Ben Nicholas 39
Ben Blastus O’Bulawayo 41
George Mukabi 43
Daudi Kabaka 47
Peter Akwabi 49
Isaya Mwinamo 51
Robbie Armstrong 53
The Ashantis 55
Sam Kahiga 59

02 Benga 61
Setting the Scene 63
What Is Benga Music? 65
Evolution & Adaptations 69
Transition to Benga 73
The Ogara Years 75
Origins of the Word – Benga 79
Producers – Band Masters & ‘Jazz Bands’ 83
1970 to 1980 – The Golden Decade of Benga 91
Beyond the Region – Benga Spreads its Wings 97
Shapers of Benga 101
Benga into the Future 117
Chapter 02 Profiles 121
John Ogara 123
Ochieng’ Nelly Orwa 125
David Amunga  127
Manasseh ‘Diploma’ Omwoma 129
Phares Oluoch Kanindo 131
BA Kanyottu 133
George Fombe ‘Yahoos’ 135
George Ramogi 137
DO Misiani 139
Ochieng’ Nelly Mengo 141
Collela Mazee 143
Shem Tube & Abana Ba Nasery 145
Kakai Kilonzo 147
Joseph Kamaru 149
DK Mwai 151
Sukuma bin Ongaro 153
Kipchamba arap Tapotuk 155
Micah Maritim 157
Kalenjin Sisters 159
Princess Jully 161
Okatch Biggy 163

03 Rumba in Nairobi City 165
The Golden Years 167
Influences – Foreign Flavour 171
The Starlight Club Resident Bands 183
Multinational Record Labels 187
End of an Era 191
Chapter 03 Profiles 193
Gabriel Omolo 195
Baba Gaston 199
Super Mazembe 201
Orchestre Les Mangelepa 205
Samba Mapangala & Orchestre Virunga 209
Simba Wanyika 217
Juma Toto 221
Hodi Boys 223
The Cavaliers 225
John Nzenze 227
Air Fiesta Matata 231
Ochieng’ Kabaselleh 233
Habel Kifoto & Maroon Commandos 237
Moreno Batamba 241

04 Ohangla 243
The Origins of Ohangla 245
Origins of the Name 247
Contemporary Ohangla 251
The Future of Ohangla 255

05 Mwomboko 259
Origins of Mwomboko 261
Mwomboko Pioneers 265
Chapter 05 Profiles 269
Shinda Gikombe 271
John Arthur 273
Cyrus Wanganagu 275

06 Akorino 277
Present-Day Corinthians 279
Divine Inspiration 283
Popular Inspiration 285

07 Taarab 287
Swahili Taarab 289
Arabic Taarab 293
Indian Taarab 295
Mombasa Taarab 301
The Youth & Taarab 305

08 Funk 309
The Funky Seventies 311
Funky Culture – Fashion & Boogies 315
Funk on the Air 319
Vibes from Mombasa 323
Funk Bands & Fusion Experiments 327
The Disco Ball Drops on Funk 335
Chapter 08 Profiles 337
Sal Davis 339
Slim Ali 341
Ishmael Jingo 343
Faisal Brown 345
Steele Beauttah 347
Gordon Ominde 349
Them Mushrooms 351
Ayub Ogada 357
Jimmy ‘St James’ Gicho 359

09 Gospel 361
What Defines Gospel Music in Kenya? 363
Kwela & Foreign Influences 367
The Era of Choirs 371
Sing N’ Shine 373
Gospel Evolution 379
Gospel – Commerce vs Ministry 383
Chapter 09 Profiles 389
Kenneth Ombima Owuor 391
Mary Atieno 393
Japheth Kasanga 395

10 Urban Expressions 399
The Renaissance 401
All that Jazz 405
Afro Fusion 415
The Spotlight on Kenyan Music Programme 423
Tours & Festivals 431
Fusion Movers & Shapers 437
Chapter 10 Profiles 445
Abbi 447
Eric Wainaina 449
Kidum 451
Suzanna Owiyo 453
Makadem 455
Ogoya Nengo 457
Sauti Sol 459
Gargar 461
Winyo 463

11 Hip-Hop 465
Hip-Hop – The Genesis 467
Hip-Hop Made in Nairobi 477
Hip-Hop Breeding Grounds 483
Hip-Hop Platforms – TV, FM Radio & Club DJs 491
Producers – Digital Era 497
Rhymes & Cents – The Business of Hip-Hop 529
Lyrical Beef – The Real vs Kapuka 535
Hip-Hop into the Future 545
Chapter 11 Profiles 551
Fundi Frank 553
Poxi Presha 555
Kalamashaka 557
Hardstone 559
E-Sir 561

12 Live Gigs 563
On Stage – Shows & Venues 565

13 Broadcasters 579
Voices – Behind the Mic 581
Chapter 13 Profiles 587
Leonard Mambo Mbotela 589
Job Isaac Mwamto 591
Eddy Fondo 593
Fred Obachi Machoka 595
Sam Madoka 597
Ike Mulembo 599
Larry Wambua 601
John Obong’o Jr 603
Tony Msalame 605

14 The Smithsonian Folklife Festival 607
Kenya Mambo Pod 609

Afterword 615
Selected Bibliography 616
Interviews 619
Photographers & Picture Contributors 621
Picture Index 624
Index 627
Editorial Team  643
Ketebul Music  645

CONTENTS

Abstract iii
Acknowledgements iv

Chapter 1
A Lamu Afternoon – Introduction 1
Chapter 2
“First for Leisure”:
Situating Taarab in a Local Context 22
Chapter 3
“Awakening the People”:
Swahili Poems and the Construction of a Community Ethic 44
Chapter 4
“They Just Want to Play” –
Decline of Taarab and the Music in Contemporary Times 66
Chapter 5
Conclusion 87

Appendix A
Photos 94
Bibliography 97

See Main menu “Music industry – Books” for full Table of Contents

KENYA INDEX

Kenyan music, xii, xv, 30-33, 43, 60, 227, 298;
benga beat, 93;
broadcasting (VoK),
25, 125, 145, 171, 205, 205, 234, 245, 250, 257-9, 263-4;
CBS in, xiii, 82, 93-5, 96, 99, 108, 245;
copyright,
47, 145-6, 167, 171, 175, 176, 182-6, 203-4, 204, 205, 209;
cultural dominance in, 298-9;
EMI in, xiii, 92-3, 108; and external cultural forces, 65;
government policy, 228, 223;
international co-operation, 47, 48, 49;
‘Malaika’ case, 182-7 & n;
manufacturing costs, 159;
music education, 230;
music in hotels, 62, 293;
National Music Organization Treaty, 143-6;
national pop-rock scene, 303, 306, 310;
organization of musicians in, 290-91;
phonogram industry, 24, 25, 113, 115, 117;
Polygram in, 76, 77, 81, 93, 144-5, 151;
popular music, 32-3, 302;
Presidential National Music Commission, 65;
profile of change (appendix), 350-56;
traditional music, 31-2,43
Kenya National Cultural Council, 228

CONTENTS

List of Figures vii
Acknowledgements ix
Abstract xi
List of Abbreviations xii

Background  1

Chapter One
Research Methodology 27
1.1 Introduction 27
1.1.1 Pilot Study 28
1.1.2 Legal Requirement and Research Funding 29
1.1.3 Locale of the Study 29
1.1.4 Nairobi as Preferred Research Site 3o
1.1.5 Taking off 33
1.1.6 Field Techniques 34
1.1.7 Members of the Audience as Respondents 40
1.1.8 Native Researcher and Prior Knowledge 41
1.1.9 Approaches to Analysis and Interpretation of Findings 43
1.1.10 Literature Review 48
1.1.11 Philosophical and Methodological Framework 73
1.1.12 Theoretical Framework 77
 
Chapter Two
Negotiating Kenyan Youth; Hip-Hop Artists in Perspective 85
2.1 Introduction 85
2.2 Youth and Violence 99
2.3 Kenyan Youth and Hip-Hop 102
2.4 Self Revelations 103
2.5 Kenyan Urban Space as Motivation for Youth Culture and
       Hip-Hop 105
2.6 Eating Spots and Leisure Practices 113
2.7 Youth and Matatu 114
2.8 Conclusion 116

Chapter Three
Urban Space and Hip-Hop in Kenya 121
3.1 The Urban as a Site for this Study 121
3.2 Music and Leisure in the Urban Nairobi 130
3.3 Sheng Language and Construction of Identity 
      in Kenyan Hip-Hop 140

Chapter Four
The Making of Kenyan Hip-Hop 157
4.0 Meet Kenyan Artists 157
4.1 Brief History of Kenyan Hip-Hop 162
4.2 Kenyan Hip-Hop 165
4.3 Kenyan Hip-Hop Music Production and Distribution 212

Chapter Five
Themes in Kenyan Hip-Hop 259
5.1 Introduction 259
5.2 The Socio-Political in Kenyan Hip-Hop: 
      The Example of ‘Unbwogable’ 289
5.3 Gospel Hip-Hop; Rapping in the Church 304
5.4 HIV/AIDS: Manyake! and Kenyan Hip-Hop Intervention 315
5.5 Hip-Hop Battle “Mchongoano” 338
5.6 Economy and Class Structure Struggles 342
5.7 Sponsorship of Hip-Hop in Kenya 344

Chapter Six
Kenyan Hip-Hop; Assessing its Impact 355
6.1 Introduction 355
6.1.1 Quest for a Kenyan Musical Identity 357
6.1.2 Names as Form of Expression in Kenyan Hip-Hop 36o
6.1.3 Bidii Yangu and Referents of Economic Empowerment 364
6.1.4 Challenging and Expanding Religious Music Taste 
         and space 367
6.1.5 Participative Audience; Quest for Consent 370
6.1.6 Edutainment in Kenyan Hip-Hop 371
6.1.7 Ethnic Identity Formations 373
6.1.8 Negotiating Culture and Music Identity in Kenya 374
6.1.9 Kenyan Hip-Hop Movement; Negotiation from
          the Periphery 375
6.1.10 Public Image and Youth 377
6.1.11 Socio-political Expression and Negotiation in
           Kenyan Hip-Hop 380
6.1.12 Costumes and Dress in Kenyan Hip-Hop 384
6.1.13 Expression in Music and the Search for Identity 387
6.1.14 Social Discourse 389
6.1.15 Sense of Community and Solidarity 391
6.1.16 Media coverage and Kenyan Hip-Hop 394

Summary, Conclusion, Remarks and Recommendations 396

Bibliography 407
Discography 426
Filmography 428
Appendices 429

Curriculum Vitae 449
Declaration 450

ÍNDICE

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CONTENTS

Foreword to the first edition by B. W. Andrzejewski ix
Foreword to the 1996 edition by Abdilahi Qarshi xi
Preface to the first edition xv
Preface to the 1996 edition xxiii

1. Introduction
The social context 1
The Nature of Traditional Pastoralist Poetry 12
The Historical Development of Modern Oral Poetry 17

2. The Family of Miniature Genres
The Nature of the Family of Miniature Genres 27
The Poetry of the Miniature Family 32

3. The emergence of the Belwo
The Historical Background 49
The Belwo is Born 53
The Poetry of the Belwo 59

4. The Heello: Period One
The Metamorphosis: Belwo to Heello A 75
The Modem Poem: Heello A to Heello B 82

5. The Heello: Period Two
The Historical Background 95
The Poetry of the Second Period 103

6. The Heello: Period Three
The Historical Background 117
The Poetry of the Third Period 146

7. Characteristics of the Heello: All Periods
Themes Common to All Periods 175
Structural Characteristics and
Development Common to All Periods 190
The Impact of Media on Modern Poetry 208

8. Conclusion
The Inheritance of the Heello 215
Forces Behind the Success and Development of Modern Poetry 216

CONTENTS

Foreword by Banning Eyre ix
Introduction 1

Part 1 Early Days
1 The Birth of Afrobeat 27
2 Joe Mensah Remembers 41
3 Fela in Ghana 49
4 Stan Plange Remembers 29

Part 2 Confrontation
5 Kalakuta is Born 67
6 “JB” Talks about Fela 73
7 The Kalakuta Republic 81
8 The Black President 114
9 Amsterdam and After 125

Part 3 Retrospect
10 Mac Tontoh on Fela 139
11 Frank Talk about Fela 152
12 Obiba Plays It Again 165
13 Smart Binete Sorts It Out 174
14 Anku Checks Out the Beat 178
15 Nana Danso Orchestrates 183
16 Some Early Afro-Fusion Pioneers 197
17 Interview with Fela 204
18 Afterthoughts and Updates 209
19. Felabrations at Home and Abroad 238

Chronology 259
Notes 269
Selected Bibliography 281
Discography 285
Appendix A: “Shuffering and Shmiling” Score 303
Index 309

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CONTENTS

AFRICA

The North and West
Introduction: Peter Gabriel 1
Libya 3
Tunisia 5
Algeria 6
Morocco 13
Mauritania 16
Senegal 17
Mali 20
Guinea 26
Guinea-Bissau 29
Cape Verde 29
Sierra Leone 31
Côte d’Ivoire 32
Ghana 34
Togo and Benin 36
Nigeria 37

Central Africa, The South and East
Introduction: Manu Dibango 42
Cameroon 44
Zaire 49
Congo 56
Gabon 56
Angola 57
Zambia 58
Mozambique 59
Zimbabwe 60
South Africa 65
Madagascar 70
Mauritius and Reunion 71
Tanzania and Zanzibar 72
Kenya 74
Uganda 76
Burundi 76
Ethiopia 77
Sudan 79

TABLE DE MATIÈRES

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