TABLE DES MATIÈRES

Préface : Les yeux brillants (conte rwandais) 7

De la Forêt-Noire au pays des mille collines 9
Les musiques du Rwanda 19
Le génocide sur lequel on a fermé les yeux 25
Les gens qui connaissent la souffrance n’ont pas d’ethnie 31
Corneille d’hier et d’aujourd’hui 35
Modèles, mentors et idoles 39
Il n’y a pas de froideur allemande 59
Revenir à la musique 63
Canada 69
De Düsseldorf à la Belle Province 73
Pas fâché 81
Wagram 85
Le public l’attendait 93
Et la Cigale chanta … 95
Scènes et bravos 99
Les marchands de rêve 103
Back to Africa 107
De 2004 à nos jours 115
Femmes d’un seul homme 119
L’horreur est humaine (Coluche) 125
L’amour qui referme les blessures 131
Pensées Cornéliennes 137
Quelques mots rwandais 139
Glossaire 141
Discographie 163

CONTENTS

Abstract ix

Chapter 1
Introduction 1
Significance of the Study 14
Review of Literature 16
   Historical and Sociological Studies of the Genocide 16
   Music and Mass Atrocity 22
   Censorship of Music 25
   Literature on Bikindi 28
Biographical Sketch of Bikindi 33
   Childhood 33
   Adolescence 35
   Early Adulthood and Professional Life 36
   Bikindi the Celebrity 38
   Musical and Compositional Approach 39
   “Twasazareye” and the Founding of Itorero Irindiro 40
   Economic Collapse, Multipartyism, Civil War, and Genocide 41
   Personal Impressions 44
Methodology 46
   Ethics of Research in a Post-Conflict Region 51
   Conceptual Approach 56
   Live Texts 57
   Polyvocal Ethnography 60
   Hermeneutic Phenomenology 62
   Ethnography of the Individual 63
Chapter Organization 64

Chapter 2
Historical Background of the Genocide and its Politicization 66
General Framework of Rwandan History 68
The Ancient Era 71
   The Origins of Hutu and Tutsi 72
The Abanyiginya Monarchial Era 74
   Ruganzu Ndori and the Birth of the Abanyiginya Dyansty 74
   The Beginning of the Patron=Client System 76
   The Expansion and Complexity of the Monarchy 77
   Hutu and Tutsi as Occupational and Socioeconomic Identities 79
   The Social and Political Inferiorizing of Hutu 80
   The End of the Dynasty 81
   Colonial-Monarchial Era 81
   The Hamitic Myth and the Racialization of Hutu and Tutsi 82
   The Colonial=Monarchial Alliance 83
   Belgian Colonialism and the Further Racialization of
   Hutu and Tutsi 84
   The Democratic Revolution of 1959=1961 86
The Independent Republic Era 88
   Rubanda Nyamwinshi and the Persecution of Tutsi
   under PARMEHutu 88
   Habyarimana and the Second Republic 90
   Economic Collapse and Multipartyism 91
   War with the RPF and the Arusha Accords 92
The Genocide 94
Concluding Remarks 96

Chapter 3
The Trail 99
Purpose in Studying Bikindi’s Trail 100
Chronology and Composition of the Chamber and Counsels 102
Explanation of the Charges 103
   Genocide 103
   Conspiracy to Commit Genocide 106
   Complicity in Genocide 106
   Direct and Public Incitement to Commit Genocide 107
   Murder and Persecution as Crimes against Humanity 111
Specific Charges and Judges’ Decisions 114
   Massacre of Tutsi Prisoners at the Gisenyi Prison 114
   Murder of Stanislas Gasasira 121
   Murders of Karasira and Family 122
   Massacres at Nyamyumba and Incident at Rugerero
   Roadblock 124
   Rape and Killing of Ancilla and Her Daughter 126
   Massacres at Camp Scout 127
   Murders of Three Women at Commune Rouge 128
   Allegations of Sexual Violence 128
   Conspiring with Political and Military Leaders and
   RTLM Personnel 128
   Statements Delivered at Political Rallies 130
   Statements Delivered on the Road between Kivumu
   and Kayove 133
   Composing Songs with the Intent to Incite Genocide 136
Aggravating and Mitigating Circumstances 138
Verdict and Sentencing 139
The Appeal 139
Bikindi’s Final Statement to the Court 143
Concluding Remarks 146

Chapter 4
The Songs 150
Claims from the Prosecution, Defence, and Final Judgement 154
Confliction Interpretations of the Songs 157
   Political Allegiances and Conflicting Interpretations 159
   Experiences of the Genocide and Its Aftermath and Conflicting
   Interpretations 160
   Perceptions of Bikindi among Hutu vs. Tutsi Participants 161
   Perceptions of History and Conflicting Interpretations of
   the Songs 162
The Spoken and Unspoken in Kinyarwanda Discourse 163
The Historical and Political Role of Rwandan Musicians 170
Notes on Translation Methods and Orthography 171
Concerning Issues of Intellectual Property Rights 176
“Twasazareye” (“We Bade Farewell”) 177
“Akabyutso” (“The Awakening”) 187
“Intabaza” (“Intabaza”) 196

Chapter 5
Commentary on the Songs 216
Commentary from Personal Conversations 217
Commentary from the Trail: “Twasazareye” 225
   Testimony from Prosecution Witnesses 225
   Testimony from Defense Witnesses 231
Commentary from the Trail: “Akabyutso” 236
   Testimony from Prosecution Witnesses 236
   Testimony from Defense Witnesses 238
Commentary from the Trail:  “Intabaza” (“The Alert”) 246
   Testimony from Prosecution Witnesses 246
   Testimony from Defense Witnesses 247

Chapter 6
Radio and the Propagandinzation of the Songs 253
From Radio Rawanda to RTLM 255
   Radio Rwanda vs. Radio Muhabura 256
   The Founding and Format of RTLM 257
   RTLM as Voice of the People or Voice of the Government? 259
   The Legitimization of RTLM as a Source of Information
   and Analysis 260
   From Respectable Critique to Outright Hatred 267
Arguments Concerning the Effectiveness of RTLM in
Inciting Genocide 269
The Workings of Propaganda 271
A Narrative of Victimhood and Victory 276

Chapter 7
Music, Remembrance, Self-Narrativity, and Healing
Among Five Genocide Survivors 283
Case Study 1: Julius 284
   Nostalgia for a Nightmare?  288
   Nostalgia as Self=Resurrection 290
   Music as a Catalyst for Nostalgia 292
Case Study 2: Pierre 295
Case Study 3: Innocent 298
   Innocent listens to Bikindi’s Songs 305
Trauma, Self-Narrativity, and Healing 308
   Defining and Conceptualizing Trauma 308
   The Need to Tell in the Aftermath of Genocide 311
   The Need for a Listener 317
   The Role of Bikindi’s Songs in Therapeutic Self=Narrativity 321
Case Study 4: Jeannette and Augustin 323

Chapter 8
Coerced Self-Censorship of Bikindi’s Songs 328
The Sociopolitical Context of Censorship in Rwanda 330
Examples of RPT Indoctrination Processes 334
   The National Museum of Rwanda 334
   Educational Policies 335
   Indoctrination Camps (Ingando) 336
   Compulsory Attendance at Gacaca 337
   Censorship of News Media 340
   Genocide Memorials 342
   The Suppression of Criticism of the RPF 347
   Elimination of Political Opponents 349
Why Bikindi’s Songs are Censored 351
Law Related to Censorship 353
Identity, Suspicion, and Ownership of Bikindi’s Songs 357
   The Freedom of Tutsi and RPF Supporters 358
   The Concerns of Some Hutu and RPF Critics 359
Coerced Self-Censorship 363
Justifying the Censorship of Bikindi’s Songs 364

Epilogue 367

Apendix A
E-mail Correspondence dated 23 may 2008 from the Florida State University Institutional Review Board for Research Involving Human Subjects 373

References 374

Biographical Sketch 387

ÍNDICE

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CONTENTS

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CONTENTS

Foreword to the first edition by B. W. Andrzejewski ix
Foreword to the 1996 edition by Abdilahi Qarshi xi
Preface to the first edition xv
Preface to the 1996 edition xxiii

1. Introduction
The social context 1
The Nature of Traditional Pastoralist Poetry 12
The Historical Development of Modern Oral Poetry 17

2. The Family of Miniature Genres
The Nature of the Family of Miniature Genres 27
The Poetry of the Miniature Family 32

3. The emergence of the Belwo
The Historical Background 49
The Belwo is Born 53
The Poetry of the Belwo 59

4. The Heello: Period One
The Metamorphosis: Belwo to Heello A 75
The Modem Poem: Heello A to Heello B 82

5. The Heello: Period Two
The Historical Background 95
The Poetry of the Second Period 103

6. The Heello: Period Three
The Historical Background 117
The Poetry of the Third Period 146

7. Characteristics of the Heello: All Periods
Themes Common to All Periods 175
Structural Characteristics and
Development Common to All Periods 190
The Impact of Media on Modern Poetry 208

8. Conclusion
The Inheritance of the Heello 215
Forces Behind the Success and Development of Modern Poetry 216

CONTENTS

Foreword by Banning Eyre ix
Introduction 1

Part 1 Early Days
1 The Birth of Afrobeat 27
2 Joe Mensah Remembers 41
3 Fela in Ghana 49
4 Stan Plange Remembers 29

Part 2 Confrontation
5 Kalakuta is Born 67
6 “JB” Talks about Fela 73
7 The Kalakuta Republic 81
8 The Black President 114
9 Amsterdam and After 125

Part 3 Retrospect
10 Mac Tontoh on Fela 139
11 Frank Talk about Fela 152
12 Obiba Plays It Again 165
13 Smart Binete Sorts It Out 174
14 Anku Checks Out the Beat 178
15 Nana Danso Orchestrates 183
16 Some Early Afro-Fusion Pioneers 197
17 Interview with Fela 204
18 Afterthoughts and Updates 209
19. Felabrations at Home and Abroad 238

Chronology 259
Notes 269
Selected Bibliography 281
Discography 285
Appendix A: “Shuffering and Shmiling” Score 303
Index 309

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TABLE DES MATIÈRES

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CONTENTS

AFRICA

The North and West
Introduction: Peter Gabriel 1
Libya 3
Tunisia 5
Algeria 6
Morocco 13
Mauritania 16
Senegal 17
Mali 20
Guinea 26
Guinea-Bissau 29
Cape Verde 29
Sierra Leone 31
Côte d’Ivoire 32
Ghana 34
Togo and Benin 36
Nigeria 37

Central Africa, The South and East
Introduction: Manu Dibango 42
Cameroon 44
Zaire 49
Congo 56
Gabon 56
Angola 57
Zambia 58
Mozambique 59
Zimbabwe 60
South Africa 65
Madagascar 70
Mauritius and Reunion 71
Tanzania and Zanzibar 72
Kenya 74
Uganda 76
Burundi 76
Ethiopia 77
Sudan 79

TABLE DE MATIÈRES

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